A fine-scale map of recombination rates and hotspots across the human genome

Genetic maps, which document the way in which recombination rates vary over a genome, are an essential tool for many genetic analyses. We present a high-resolution genetic map of the human genome, based on statistical analyses of genetic variation data, and identify more than 25,000 recombination hotspots, together with motifs and sequence contexts that play a role in hotspot activity. Differences between the behavior of recombination rates over large (megabase) and small (kilobase) scales lead us to suggest a two-stage model for recombination in which hotspots are stochastic features, within a framework in which large-scale rates are constrained.     

High-resolution mapping of crossovers reveals extensive variation in fine-scale recombination patterns among humans

Recombination plays a crucial role in meiosis, ensuring the proper segregation of chromosomes. Recent linkage disequilibrium (LD) and sperm-typing studies suggest that recombination rates vary tremendously across the human genome, with most events occurring in narrow "hotspots." To examine variation in fine-scale recombination patterns among individuals, we used dense, genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphism data collected in nuclear families to localize crossovers with high spatial resolution. This analysis revealed that overall recombination hotspot usage is similar in males and females, with individual hotspots often active in both sexes. Across the genome, roughly 60% of crossovers occurred in hotspots inferred from LD studies. Notably, however, we found extensive and heritable variation among both males and females in the proportion of crossovers occurring in these hotspots.     

Parallel patterns of evolution in the genomes and transcriptomes of humans and chimpanzees

The determination of the chimpanzee genome sequence provides a means to study both structural and functional aspects of the evolution of the human genome. Here we compare humans and chimpanzees with respect to differences in expression levels and protein-coding sequences for genes active in brain, heart, liver, kidney, and testis. We find that the patterns of differences in gene expression and gene sequences are markedly similar. In particular, there is a gradation of selective constraints among the tissues so that the brain shows the least differences between the species whereas liver shows the most. Furthermore, expression levels as well as amino acid sequences of genes active in more tissues have diverged less between the species than have genes active in fewer tissues. In general, these patterns are consistent with a model of neutral evolution with negative selection. However, for X-chromosomal genes expressed in testis, patterns suggestive of positive selection on sequence changes as well as expression changes are seen. Furthermore, although genes expressed in the brain have changed less than have genes expressed in other tissues, in agreement with previous work we find that genes active in brain have accumulated more changes on the human than on the chimpanzee lineage.     

Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees

Human beings routinely help others to achieve their goals, even when the helper receives no immediate benefit and the person helped is a stranger. Such altruistic behaviors (toward non-kin) are extremely rare evolutionarily, with some theorists even proposing that they are uniquely human. Here we show that human children as young as 18 months of age (prelinguistic or just-linguistic) quite readily help others to achieve their goals in a variety of different situations. This requires both an understanding of others' goals and an altruistic motivation to help. In addition, we demonstrate similar though less robust skills and motivations in three young chimpanzees.     

不同处理下的麻栎扦插成活率和内含物含量

以麻栎为对象,研究了不同插穗材料和处理方法对扦插成活率和内源激素等内含物含量的影响。结果表明,麻栎枝条扦插具有明显的部位效应,插条中部的扦插成活率最高,而梢部成活率最低。在硬枝扦插试验中,以1年生的苗木萌条作为插穗,其效果明显好于大树伐桩萌条,且经过200 mg.L-1的ABT-1号生根粉处理2 h的扦插成活率高达40%。在嫩枝扦插试验中,大树伐桩萌条的扦插效果普遍较差,而苗木萌条扦插效果较好;在3个时期的扦插试验中,6月份的效果最好,且经过200 mg.L-1的ABT-1号生根粉溶液处理2 h的扦插成活率最高可达56.7%。麻栎扦插成活率与内源激素iPA、IAA、ZR及GA浓度呈正相关,与ABA浓度呈负相关。插穗中的ABA浓度明显高于其他种类激素,这可能是导致麻栎扦插生根困难的重要原因。还讨论了麻栎扦插成活率与C、N、P以及多酚氧化酶的关系。     

Acquisition and testing of gestural signs in four young chimpanzees

Two male and two female chimpanzees were each taught ten signs of American Sign Language. The acquisition rates of the signs were compared on the basis of the number of minutes required in training to reach a criterion of five consecutive unprompted correct responses. After the ten signs had been acquired, the chimpanzees were tested in a double-blind procedure for nine of the signs. All four chimpanzees acquired all of the signs. Some signs were consistently easier to acquire than others, and individual differences between the four chimpanzees were found in the acquisition rates and tests.     

Transferrin polymorphism and population differences in the genetic variability of chimpanzees

Genetic divergencies between chimpanzee populations, not only.between Pan panicus and Pan troglodytes but also between different groups of the latter, are revealed by typing of transferrin. In particular, differences in the incidence of polymorphic transferrins occur between the groups formed by subdividing a large captive chimpanzee colony of heterogeneous geographic origins into racial types solely on the basis of morphological traits. Genetic variability is extremely high in one of these groups, intermediate in another, and relatively low in a third, with the pattern of changing frequencies of allelic genes at the T(f) locus following the pattern of geographic distribution of the actual conspecific populations or races for which the groups are named.     

不同氮肥的硝化速率及其在烤烟上的施用效应比较

选用6种常用氮肥进行硝化作用的室内培育试验,并在烤烟上进行施用效应的盆栽试验.结果表明,室内培养至第15 d时,各种氮肥硝化率大小顺序为:碳酸氢铵>尿素>硝酸铵>磷酸二铵>磷酸一铵>硫酸铵;第30 d时,各种氮肥硝化率大小顺序为:碳酸氢铵>硝酸铵> 尿素>磷酸二铵>硫酸铵>磷酸一铵.施用不同氮肥对烤烟生长和产质量的影响不同.烟株移栽30 d时,各处理的长势以碳酸氢铵处理的最好,优劣顺序为:碳酸氢铵>尿素>硝酸铵>硫酸铵>对照>磷酸一铵>磷酸二铵;60 d时以硝酸铵和尿素处理的长势最好.产量最高的处理是尿素,然后依次是碳酸氢铵、硝酸铵、硫酸铵、磷酸一铵、对照和磷酸二铵.不同氮肥品种对烤烟的品质,尤其是叶片养分含量和氨基酸含量的影响也有很大的差别.     

Anti-idiotypic antibody vaccine for type B viral hepatitis in chimpanzees

Anti-idiotypic antibodies (anti-Id) that contain an internal image component that mimics the surface antigen of hepatitis B virus (HBsAg) were used to immunize chimpanzees. Four injections of the rabbit anti-Id preparation elicited an antibody response to HBsAg (anti-HBs). The antibody specificity appeared to be against the anti-Id, since the anti-Id immunogen was shown to bind the chimpanzee anti-HBs. Two chimpanzees immunized with the anti-Id, along with two control animals that were either untreated or received a nonimmune rabbit immunoglobulin G preparation, were challenged with infectious hepatitis B virus. Both control chimpanzees developed clinical and serological characteristics consistent with an active hepatitis B virus infection, whereas the two anti-Id treated chimpanzees were protected from infection. Since chimpanzees provide a relevant model of a human response to hepatitis B virus immunization and infection, these results indicate that anti-Id preparations such as that described here might be candidates for vaccines against human diseases.     

Linkage disequilibrium and recombination in hominid mitochondrial DNA

The assumption that human mitochondrial DNA is inherited from one parent only and therefore does not recombine is questionable. Linkage disequilibrium in human and chimpanzee mitochondrial DNA declines as a function of the distance between sites. This pattern can be attributed to one mechanism only: recombination.