Response of Root Branching and Shoot Water Potentials of French Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) to Soil Moisture and Fertilizer Potassium

Extensive branching patterns of roots and the maintenance of adequate water within shoots enables plants to overcome water stress. However, information on the relationship between fertilizer potassium, root branching patterns and shoot water potentials of food legumes grown under different soil moisture regimes is scarce. Thus, an experiment was conducted in a phytotron to ascertain the effect of fertilizer potassium on root branching patterns and shoot water potentials of a popular tropical food legumes (Frenchbeans Phaseolus vulgaris L). The plants were grown in a sand medium with 0.1, 0.8 or 3.0 mM of potassium under a suboptimal and optima) soil moisture regime.
Root lengths and dry weights were enhanced by potassium, especially under a suboptimal soil moisture regime. The branching patterns changed due to potassium, where the numbers of second and third order roots increased under both soil moisture regimes, although the impact was greater in plants grown with low soil moisture. Plant water contents measured in terms of shoot water potential, relative water contents, rurgid weight: dry weight ratio and water uptake capacity were also increased by potassium. A positive relationship was observed between root branching patterns and water potentials with increasing potassium levels especially in plants grown under suboptimal soil moisture conditions. Shoot growth and nodulation was also promoted by potassium. The ability of plants to develop a more extensive branching pattern of roots by inducing a greater number of second and third order roots and changing the root branching habit from a herringbone to a dichotomous type to maintain a greater shoot water potential especially under low soil moisture regimes is presented.     

Growth, Yield and Nodule Activity of Phaseolus vulgaris L. as Affected by Soil Moisture

A study evaluated the response of two varieties of beans ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) to different soil moisture levels during a dry season. The soil moisture regimes maintained throughout the growth period were field capacity, 70–75 %, 50–55 % or 20–25 % available soil moisture.
Plant growth, yield and nodulation were optimal when plants grew at high soil moisture levels. With increasing stress, all measured parameters of both varieties were reduced. However, polebeans, with its vine type of growth was affected to a greater degree than bushbeans. In contrast, nodulation and nodule activity of both variables was affected by moisture stress.
A second experiment evaluated the effects of different soil moisture levels over the growth cycle of bushbeans, which produce greater yields under drier conditions. The highest yields were obtained at higher moisture levels throughout the growth cycle. Moisture stress up to flowering reduced yields to a greater extent than when the plants were subjected to reduced soil moisture after flowering appearance. Some casual mechanisms of the results of the experiments and possible implications for incorporating this popular vegetable legume in rainfed agricultural systems are presented.     

Root and Shoot Growth of Maize (Zea mays) as Affected by Incorporation of Crotalaria juncea and Tithonia diversifolia as Green Manures

Crop establishment, determined by shoot and root growth during early growth is a vital component in procuring desired plant populations and high yields in rainfed tropical smallholder farming systems, where green manures help maintain soil fertility and sustainability. As green manure incorporation could affect early seedling growth, studies were conduced in a plant house using soils from fields, to evaluate the impact of incorporating two popular tropical green manures (Crotalaria juncea and Tithonia diversifolia) into soil under rainfed field conditions over 3 years, on selected physico‐chemical properties of the soils and on establishment and early shoot and root growth of maize (Zea mays), with and without inorganic fertilizers. In a given year, green manure was grown in one season while maize was grown in the other. A soil that did not receive green manures but was left fallow during the period of green manure cultivation was used as the control treatment. The incorporation of green manures over the 3 years showed trends of increasing soil physical properties, and also the available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents. Incorporation of Crotalaria, with its higher nitrogen content, promoted shoot growth, while Tithonia induced the development of an extended root system. The use of inorganic fertilizers stimulated the beneficial impact of the green manures in promoting shoot and root growth. The use of green manures, especially Tithonia, promoted the development of seminal and nodal roots of maize seedlings, both in the form of length and thickness (based on root surface area) and root length densities, which could assist in successful crop establishment and resource utilization, rather than primary roots. The benefits of using green manures, especially Tithonia, in promoting root growth and Crotalaria in shoot development of maize seedlings even without inorganic fertilizers is presented.     

Influence of Soil Moisture and Fertilizer Potassium on the Vegetative Growth of Mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) and Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp)

Tropical food legumes are grown in a wide range of environments, and water stress is considered the principal environmental factor limiting growth and yield. Potassium fertilizer mitigates the impact of water stress in plants. However, the benefits of potassium in overcoming stress in tropical food legumes have not been investigated in comparative studies. The purpose of this study was to determine the benefits of potassium in overcoming water stress in mungbean and cowpea, two important tropical food legumes with different adaptabilities to soil moisture regimes. The experiment carried out under controlled conditions placed emphasis on vegetative growth and selected physiological parameters. The impact of potassium was different in the two legumes grown at optimal and suboptimal soil moisture. Potassium increased shoot growth of mungbean to a greater extent than in cowpea under suboptimal moisture conditions. The roots of cowpea showed a greater response to potassium fertilizer than in mungbean under suboptimal soil moisture. The plant water relations and photosynthetic rates of mungbean were improved to a greater extent by potassium under suboptimal soil moisture than those of cowpea. Although differences were observed in the responses of the vegetative growth of these species to moisture and potassium, in overall terms potassium promoted growth of both species when subject to suboptimal soil moisture. While field studies are required to validate the results, the application of potassium fertilizer can be considered a significant factor in overcoming soil moisture stress in these legumes commonly grown in tropical cropping systems.     

Effect of Soil Moisture and Potassium Fertilizer on Shoot Water Potential, Photosynthesis and Partitioning of Carbon in Mungbean and Cowpea

The effect of different rates of potassium (K⁺) on shoot water potential, photosynthesis and carbon movement (using ¹⁴C) at the V3/4 growth stages was studied in mungbean ( Vigna radiata L. Wilczek), a drought-susceptible legume, and cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), a drought-tolerant legume, grown under low- and high-irrigation regimes under controlled conditions. Soil moisture and K⁺ affected all measured parameters in the two species. The rate of photosynthesis was higher at reduced water stress when K⁺ was applied. The impact was greater in cowpea, which had an inherently high rate of carbon assimilation. Mungbean and to a lesser extent cowpea allocated greater quantities of carbon to roots under dry conditions, especially with added K⁺. The distribution of ¹⁴C into other plant parts was also increased at higher rates of K⁺ application under both soil moisture regimes. Thus, application of K⁺ seems to have a beneficial effect in overcoming soil moisture stress and increasing physiological parameters and carbon partitioning in these two important tropical food legumes.     

枸溶性钾肥对玉溪烟叶及根区土壤养分含量的影响

为解决限制玉溪烟叶钾含量无法进一步提升,烟叶钾钙镁含量不均衡的问题,取云南玉溪2个试验小区,采用大田试验设置5个施肥处理（农民常规(T₁)、无钾(T₂)、硫酸钾(T₃)、枸钾1/4代替(T₄)、枸钾1/2代替(T₅)）,研究不同肥料配方对烟叶及根区土壤养分的影响。结果表明,塔甸地区T₄处理、新平地区T₄~T₅处理的烟叶产量较高,提升幅度为3.43%、49.7%、61.1%。2个地区施用枸溶性钾肥(T₄)可在进一步增加烟叶钾钙含量的基础上,增加烟叶镁含量、降低硫含量,使烟叶钾钙镁含量的比例更加协调,分别为1.4、1.1。施用枸溶性钾肥可显著提升根区土壤有效钙镁含量,2个地区的T₄处理可分别提升37.6%、31.8%的有效钙,而T₅处理可分别提升112.1%、46.4%的有效镁。综合不同施肥配方对烟叶及土壤养分含量的影响认为,枸钾1/4代替处理在塔甸和新平得到较好的效果,烟叶品质、根区土壤速效养分得到有效提升。     

Recovery Strategy Following the Imposition of Episodic Soil Moisture Deficit in Stands of Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.)

Peanut stands often face water deficits in the tropics and subtropics, especially in drought-prone areas of India. The effect of drought on peanut production has previously been studied. However, there is a lack of information on the post-stress recovery mechanism. The objective of this study was to investigate the recovery mechanism after relief of water stress. The effect of short-term drought applied (for 12 days) at the pre-flowering, peak flowering and pod-filling stages on chlorophyll (Chl) pigments, water use efficiency (W_ue), quantum yield (Q_y), root/shoot ratio (R:S), relative growth rate (RGR), net assimilation rate (NAR) and flower production during stress and subsequent post-stress recovery was examined. The leaf water potential (ψ_leaf) and leaf relative water content (RWC) in plants subjected to water deficit were reduced to 1/10 and 2/3, respectively, of the corresponding control values. Moisture deficit significantly reduced Chl a and b concentrations, the Chl a/b ratio, stomatal conductance, photosynthesis, W_ue and Q_y. However, a strong recovery of these traits was noted after rewatering, which led to onset of fresh growth on post-stress, with a marked increase in RGR and NAR and a flush of flowering. Drought significantly enhanced R:S, which accelerated post-stress recovery. Peanut stands exhibited excellent ecophysiological recovery with the post-stress onset of fresh growth. This strong recovery mechanism found in peanut stands suggests that peanut has high environmental plasticity.     

Influence of a Triazole Plant Growth Regulator on Root and Shoot Development and Nitrogen Utilisation of Oilseed Rape (Brassica napus L.)

A factorial experiment with 3 nitrogen (N) levels and 4 application rates of the triazole type plant growth regulator (PGR), BAS 111 W = l-phenoxy-3-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-4-hydroxy-5,5-dimethylhexane, was conducted in hydroponics to study the influence on N uptake and morphological changes of oilseed rape. The following results were obtained:
–Increased N level of the nutrient solution increased plant height and root and shoot weight. Enhanced N uptake caused a higher N concentration of root and shoot.
–Increasing PGR application rates reduced plant height and shoot biomass production; this reaction was stronger at higher doses of N.
–Root weight, root length, root diameter and root surface area were increased by N application. None of these parameters was significantly altered by the PGR. This resulted in increased root-shoot-ratios at higher PGR rates.
–As a consequence of reduced shoot production PGR application resulted in increased concentrations of N. The root reacted similarly but to a lesser degree.     

Growth and Yields of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) as Influenced by Seed Characters, Soil Moisture and Season of Planting

Cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) is an important food legume grown under rainfed conditions in the tropics. However, the yield of this crop varies widely in most tropical ecosystems due to crop and environmental factors. Experiments were carried out to evaluate the effects of seed characteristics, soil moisture at planting and the season of crop establishment on growth and yield parameters of cowpea as these influence the productivity of the crop. Growth and yield of cowpea plants grown from small seeds with a high conductivity of their lea-chates were significantly lower than those grown from large seeds. Root growth of seedlings was most prominent under moderate soil moisture levels. Low soil moisture retarded root growth by reducing dry weights and suppressing the development of laterals. Shoot growth was more sensitive to increasing soil moisture stress than root growth. Planting cowpea in the wet season produced the highest yields. Within a season, growth and yield were higher when the crop was planted early. Establishment of the crop later in the season produced better quality seeds measured in terms of germination after controlled deterioration.     

Heterosis and Inbreeding Depression Estimation of Root and Shoot Characters in Rice (Oryza sativa L.)

The nature and extent of hybrid vigour and inbreeding depression were estimated from a diallel set of rice varieties. The seven parents and their 21 F₁s and 21 F₂s were grown in pots with four replications. Data were collected on four root and two shoot characters.
Maximum heterosis was recorded for root weight followed by roots/plant and root length. The inbreeding depression did not significantly affect the dry root weight in majority of the crosses. Heterosis for shoot weight was found to be associated with the heterosis for roots/plant and root weight.     

Freezing Resistance and Development of Faba Beans as Affected by Ambient Temperature, Soil Moisture and Variety

Effects of temperature and soil moisture on the development of some plant and leaf traits and of freezing resistance were examined in 5 (6) European varieties of winter faba beans. After pre-growth at 15 °C for 1 week, temperature was kept either at this level or lowered to 8:2 °C (day might). Soil moisture was maintained at 70-90 % of or above field capacity, or was allowed to approach wilting point. At 15 °C, specific dry matter content (D.M. per unit area) and water/D.M. ratio were the only traits in the lower expanded leaves (1-3) that changed markedly with time. Several plant and leaf traits were affected by soil moisture and displayed varietal differences. However, freezing resistance remained unchanged with time and was hardly affected by soil moisture and varieties (Δ R < 0.2 °C). Interestingly freezing resistance and leaf traits were differently expressed in leaves 1-3 of plants and thus contributed to some low correlations between these items. Likewise at 8:2 °C, only low correlations between leaf traits and freezing resistance were established. They were mainly due to developmental effects and soil moisture, since (i) specific water and D. M. content increased in parallel with freezing resistance (rate - 0.45 °C/day), (ii) leaf traits and freezing resistance were differently expressed in leaves 1 and 2 (i.e. -12.5 and -13.5 °C) and (iii) low as well as high soil moisture raised freezing resistance (-0.7°C) and specific D.M. content, but lowered water/D.M. ratio. With the exception of the old French land race Cote ?Or, varietal differences in freezing resistance at 8:2 °C were small (<0.5 °C). Neither in the first nor in the second leaf varietal rank pattern of freezing resistance was consistent with that of other traits and hence no genotypic correlations could be established. On the basis of these data, the usefulness of leaf traits in breeding as indirect criteria for freezing resistance appeared doubtful.     

Physiological Responses of Tomato Plants (Solanum lycopersicum) as Affected by Root Hypoxia

In order to investigate the effects of root hypoxia (1–2 % oxygen) on physiology and on some fructification parameters of tomato plants ( Solanum lycopersicum cv. H63-5), a range of physiological and agronomic measurements were performed on plants submitted to gradual root hypoxia at the second leaf stage. Stomatal conductance (g_s), total chlorophyll content, leaf area (LA) and leaf mass per area (LMA) were quantified at 14 days of treatment in the first leaf appeared before (L1) and after (L3) root hypoxia application. The results obtained showed that 7 days of treatment has slight effects on plant weight growth. However, 14 days of treatment caused decreased root dry weight (DW) with a concomitant increase in shoot DW. Root hypoxia significantly decreased g_s and chlorophyll content of L3, but no effects were noted for L1. LA was significantly reduced for L1 and L3, contrary to LMA which was significantly increased. At the reproductive stage, root hypoxia resulted in a decrease in flower and fruit production, accelerated the entrance in the fruit expansion phase, but did not affect the rate of fruit growth, nor the final fruit size.     

Effect of GA, CCC and B-9 on Morphophysiological Characters and Yield of Kidney Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

A pot and 2 successive seasons field experiments were conducted on bean, by spraying 25,50 or 100 ppm GA, 100, 250 or 500 ppm of either CCC or B-9, one month after sowing. Results showed that:
GA induced stem elongation and thinning through cell elongation and decrease of both of ground tissue cell-size and vascular cylinder cell layers in the stem. On the other hand, CCC and B-9 led to stem shortening and thickening, as a consequence of increased number of cell layers leading to widening the vascular cylinder of the stem.
Leaf area was much more increased by CCC and B-9 than by GA.
GA increased amylase activity and had no effect on invertase, meanwhile CCC and B-9 mostly decreased the former's and increased the latter's enzyme activity, 30 days after spraying.
GA and CCC increased number of seeds/pod, while B-9 had no effect on this character.
CCC and B-9 increased pod number/plant, specific seed weight, leading to increment of seed yield/plant, while GA had no effect on these characters.     

裸苗移栽棉花根系形态特征的初步观察

 对收获期裸苗移栽、营养钵育苗移栽和直播棉花的成熟棉株根系形态特征进行了剖面观察,发现裸苗移栽棉株的侧根向四周呈伞面放射状生长,可见粗而健壮的优势侧根6~8条·株^-1;营养钵移栽棉株的侧根多向一侧呈鸡爪状极性伸展,可见优势侧根1~2条或2~3条;直播棉花为典型的直根系。经测定,裸苗移栽棉花一级侧根条数44条·株^-1,分别比营养钵移栽和直播棉的多15.8%和37.5%;根直径0.31 cm,分别比营养钵移栽和直播棉的粗20.5%和88%;根干重31.9 g·株^-1,分别比营养钵移栽和直播棉的重22.2%和75.3%。     

不同底墒处理对夏玉米生长发育及产量的影响

研究不同底墒处理下夏玉米生长发育与产量特性,探讨不同品种的抗旱性。以8 个河南省主栽夏玉米品种为材料,比较池栽条件下底墒对玉米株高、干物质、根系及产量等指标的影响。结果表明,半量底墒处理条件下,‘郑单958’和‘洛玉8 号’的产量及植株生物学性状指标减小幅度较小,‘蠡玉16’、‘中科4 号’和‘伟科702’的减幅较大,而‘浚单20’、‘先玉335’和‘隆平206’的减幅处于中间水平。‘郑单958’和‘洛玉8号’抗旱性较强,‘蠡玉16’、‘中科4号’和‘伟科702’抗旱性较弱,而‘浚单20’、‘先玉335’ ‘隆平206’等品种抗旱性中等。     

Effect of Rainfall Collecting with Ridge and Furrow on Soil Moisture and Root Growth of Corn in Semiarid Northwest China

A plastic‐covered ridge and furrow farming of rainfall collecting (RC) system were designed to increase water availability to corn for improving and stabilizing agricultural production in the semiarid Loess region of northwest China. This system comprised two elements: the ridge mulched by plastic film that acts as a rainfall harvesting zone and the furrow as a planting zone. To adopt this system for large‐scale use in the semiarid region and bring it into full play, it is necessary to test the appropriate rainfall range for RC farming. A field study (using corn as an indicator crop) combined with rainfall simulation was conducted to determine the effect of RC on soil moisture, root characteristic parameters and the yield of corn under three different rainfall levels (230, 340 and 440 mm) during the growing seasons of 2006 and 2007. The results indicated that with the rainfalls ranging within 230–440 mm, the soil moisture at 0–100 cm depth for RC system in furrows was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of conventional flat (CF for control) practice. At 100–200 cm soil depth, there was no significant difference (P > 0.05) between soil moisture in the RC₂₃₀ plots and in the CF₂₃₀ plots during the corn growing seasons, while the soil moisture both in the RC₃₄₀ and RC₄₄₀ plots were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those in the CF₃₄₀ and CF₄₄₀ plots. The root length, root surface area, root volume and root dry weight for RC₂₃₀ and RC₃₄₀ plots all significantly increased (P < 0.05) compared with CF₂₃₀ and CF₃₄₀ plots, but these root characteristic parameters at 440 mm rainfall slightly decreased compared with those of CF practice. Compared with the CF_230–440 pattern, the increasing amplitude of grain yield under the RC_230–440 pattern diminished with the rainfall increase and there was no obvious yield‐incrementing effect (P > 0.05) between two patterns at 440 mm rainfall in 2006. In comparison with these two farming practices, the RC system not only improved soil moisture of dry farmland, but also promoted the development of corn root systems when the rainfall ranged between 230 and 440 mm. Thus, it could be concluded that the optimal upper rainfall limit for the RC system is below 440 mm in the experiment. For corn, the adoption of the RC practice in the 230–440 mm rainfall area will make the system more effective during the whole growth period and offer a sound opportunity for sustainable farming in semiarid areas.     

Effects of Interactions of Moisture Regime and Nutrient Addition on Nodulation and Carbon Partitioning in Two Cultivars of Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Major limitations of bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production in arid and semiarid regions are lack of moisture and low soil fertility. An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of soil moisture and N : P : K (20 : 10 : 10) fertilizer on root and shoot growth of two cultivars of bean: cv. Carioca, an indeterminate Brazilian landrace, and cv. Prince, a determinate cultivar grown in Europe. Carioca appears generally stress-tolerant while Prince is intolerant. Seedlings were grown in pots of non-sterile soil at 30, 60 or 90 % field capacity (FC), and given 0, 0.1 or 1 g (kg soil)^–1 of compound fertilizer. The soil contained a population of effective Rhizobium . Growth of both cultivars was greatest in the high moisture and high nutrient treatments. Root fractions were highest at low nutrient supply; the effect of water was not significant. Leaf fraction decreased as root fraction increased. Numbers of nodules were highest at high and intermediate moisture when no fertilizer was applied. Numbers were lowest at 30 % FC and at the highest fertilizer rate. Masses of nodules and fractions followed the same pattern. Decreasing water regime reduced the relative growth rate (RGR) of Prince, while Carioca maintained high RGR at unfavourable conditions of water and nutrients. Net assimilation rates (NAR) were unaffected by nutrient addition, and reduced by low moisture regime. Water use efficiencies (WUEs) were reduced by water stress but increased by nutrient deficiency. The water utilization for dry matter production was optimal at 60 % FC.     

Shoot Regeneration from Anther Culture of Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) and Some Interspecific Hybrids as Affected by Genotype and Culture Procedure

Anther culture has been demonstrated to be an applicable technique for the development of doubled haploid, i. e. homozygous lines of many crop species. In some species, androgenetic doubled haploids have already been shown to be a useful tool for breeding. However, anther culture results in sunflower have been rather unsatisfactory up to now. As in other species, anther culture response of sunflower (Helianthus sp.) is strongly affected by physical, nutritional, physiological and genetical factors. By testing a number of different culture parameters, i. e. donor plant stages, culture media and conditions, and appropriate schedule could be worked out for the successful regeneration of shoots – at least for a number of sunflower lines and interspecific hybrids.     

The Effects of Temperature and Soil Moisture on Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Genotype Sensitivity to Isoxaflutole

Isoxaflutole at 75 g ai ha^?1 is registered in Australia for the control of several broadleaf weeds in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Although isoxaflutole provides satisfactory control of problematic weeds, under certain conditions crop injury can occur. Higher air temperature and moisture content of soil are reported to affect the metabolism of soil applied herbicide. Controlled environment experiments were used to determine the tolerance of chickpea to isoxaflutole under a range of temperature and soil moisture levels. For the soil moisture study, the variables examined were two desi chickpea genotypes (Kyabra as a tolerant cultivar and Yorker as a sensitive cultivar), three soil moisture levels [50 % field capacity (FC), 75 % FC and FC] with three herbicide rates [0, 75 (recommended rate) and 300 g ai ha^?1]. For the temperature by soil moisture study, the variables examined were two other desi chickpea genotypes (97039‐1275 as a tolerant line and 91025‐3021 as a sensitive line), three temperature regimes (20/5, 30/15 and 35/25 °C), two soil moisture conditions (50 % FC and FC) with the same three herbicide rates. The results demonstrated that the chickpea genotypes exhibited differential tolerance to isoxaflutole, but that differences in response were affected by rate, temperature and soil moisture. Increasing temperature and soil moisture content made the susceptible chickpea genotype more vulnerable to isoxaflutole damage. Injury to the susceptible genotype in terms of increased leaf chlorosis and reduction in shoot height and dry matter production increased as soil moisture increased from 50 % FC to FC and temperature increased from 20/5 to 35/25 °C. Overall damage of the sensitive genotype from increasing rates of isoxaflutole also increased when soil moisture content increased from 50 % FC to FC within the fixed temperature regime of 30/15 °C. The sensitivity of chickpea to isoxaflutole depends on existing temperature and moisture content and the chances of crop damage were enhanced with increasing temperature and moisture levels.