Growth of seedlings of Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. and Agrostis gigantea Roth in cereal crops

Experiments were undertaken to define the conditions under which seeds and seedlings of Agropyron repens and Agrostis gigantea may start infestations in cereal crops. When seedlings were planted early or late in spring wheat and spring barley, most growth of shoots and rhizomes was produced by Agropyron planted early in wheat. Late planting halved the amount of shoot growth and severely inhibited rhizome formation. In winter wheat given a moderate or zero amount of nitrogen fertilizer in spring, growth of the weed seedlings was slow. Rhizomes were not produced during the time the crop was growing but only after harvest. Agrostis made more growth than Agropyron in most treatments throughout most of the experiment. Late planting decreased growth more than in the spring cereals. Nitrogen fertilizer, although it had little effect on the amount of growth made by winter wheat, increased the growth of the early-planted seedlings but decreased that of the late-planted ones of both weed species. When planted into plots given nitrogen, more seedlings of both species died after late than after early planting. Clearly, the amount of growth and rhizome produced by seedlings of these two species will depend on the type of cereal, the time of emergence of the seedlings in relation to the cereal, and on other factors affecting the relative vigour of cereal and weed. Evidently, where the weed seedlings emerge early in weakly or moderately competitive cereal crops or when growth is unchecked in the cereal stubble, seedlings could give rise to infestations.     

Germination and longevity of seeds of Agropyron repens L. Beauv. and Agrostis gigantea Roth. in soil in relation to different cultivation regimes

Results arc reported of two experiments done during 1971–76. which investiga ted the germination and longevity in soil of seeds of Agropyron repens L. Beauv. and Agrostis gigantea Roth. The effects of different cultivation regimes and paraquat were investigated in a field experiment and the effects of different frequencies of cultivation in a sandy loam and silty loam soil were studied in the glasshouse. Seeds of neither species were innately dormant and most germination occurred during the first autumn. Agrostis seeds germinated most readily on the soil surface and persisted longest where the seeds were incorporated in soil al the outset and not cultivated in the spring. In contrast. Agropyron seeds germinated most readily when incorporated in soil at the cutset and their depletion was largely independent of cultivations in the spring; they persisted longest where they remained on the soil surface dtiring the firstautumn. Paraquat, sprayed on to dry seeds, greatly decreased the number of Agropyron seeds, giving emerged seedlings early during the first autumn but did not afTect the number emerging after this. Agrostis was aflected little by paraquat. Agrostis seeds were more persistent than Agropyron in most treatments of both experiments; in the field, on average, only abotit 0.3% of Agropyrim seeds gave emerged seedlings during the fourth year whereas about three times as many Agrostvis seedlings would be expected to emerge during the fifth year. The number of seedlings, particularly of Agrostis. emerging in consecutive years did not decrease continuously from year to year. There was some indication that longevity of Agrostis seeds might be greater in a sandy loam than in a silly loam soil. The much smaller percentage of seeds accounted for in the field than in the glasshouse is emphasised and the implications of the findings to practical control measures, particularly that depletion of seed reserves is dependent on initial cultivations, are briefly discussed. Germination et longévité des sentences d' Agropyron repens L. Beauv. et d'Agrostis gigantea Roth, dans le sol, en relation avec different régimes de culture. Les auteurs rapportent les résultats de deux expériénces effectuées de 1971 à 1976, destinées àétudier la germination et la longevité dans le sol des seremencesd d' Agropyron repens(L.) Beauv. et d'Agrostis gigantea Roth. Les effets de différents régimes de culture et du paraquat ont étéétudiés dans une expérience au champ et les effets de différentes fréquences de culture, dans un sol de limon sableux et dans un limon fm ont étéétudies en serre. Les semenees des deux espéces ne se sont pas révélées naturellement dormantes et la plus grande partie de la germination s'est produite durant le premier automne, Les semenees d'Agrostis ont germé plus aisément à la surface du sol et ont persisté plus longtemps là oü les semenees ont été incorporées dans le sol dés le début el non irultivées au printemps. En revanche, tes sentences d’ Agropyron ont germé plus aisément lcirsqu'elles ont été incorporées dans les sol dés le debut et leur épuisement a été en grande partie indépendant des facons culturales effectuées au printemps; elles ont persisté plus longtemps lä oü elles sont restées à la surface du sol durant le premier automne. Le paraquat, pulvérisé sur les semenees séches, a diminué de facon importante le nombre de semenees d'Agropyron donnant des levées précoces de plantules durant le premier automne; par la suite, le paraquat n'a pas eu d'effet sur le nombre des levées. L'Agrostis a été peu aftecté par le paraquat. Les semenees d’ Agrostis se sont montrées plus persistantes que celles ti’ Agropyron dans la plupart des conditions des deux expériences; au champ environ 0,03% seulement en moyennede semenees d'Agropyron ont levé au cours de la quatriéme année alors que trois fois autani de levées d'Agrostisétaient attendues au cours de la cinquiéme année. Le nombre de plantules d’Agrosits en particulier. levant au cours des annees consecutives n'a pas continuellement diminué d'année en année, ll y a quelques raisons de penser que la longévité des semenees d'Agrostis pourrait étre plus grande dans un limon sableux que dans un limon fin. Les auteurs insistent sur le fait que le pourcentage de semenees enregistré au champ a été beaucoup plus faible qu'en serre. Les implications des constatations faites dans les mesures pratiques de lutte sont briévement discutées, en particulier le fait que la diminution des reserves des semenees dépend des facons culturales initiates. Keimung und Lebensdauer der Samen von Agropyron repens L. Beauv. und Agrostis gigantea Roth, im Boden in Be:iehung zu unterschiedlicher Bodenhearbeitung Es wird üher Versuche berichiet, die in der Zeit von 1971–1976 durchgeführt wurden. und in denen die Keimung und die Lebensdauer der Samen von Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. und Agrostis gigantea Roth, im Boden untersucht wurden. In einem Feldversuch wurde die Wirkung verschiedener Bodenbearbeitungen und von Paraquat untersucht. und in einem Gewâhshausversuch die Wirkung unterschiedlichcr Abstände in der Bodenbearbeitung bei cinem saodigen Lehmboden und einem Schluff-Lenmbodcn. Bei keiner der beiden Arten waren die Samen endogen dormant, und die mcisten keimten im ersten Herbst. Die Samen von Agrostis keimten am schnellsten auf der Bodenoberfläche und überlebten am längsten, wenn sie am Anfang eingearbeitet wurden. der Boden im Frühjahr aber niirht bearbeitet wurde. In Gegensatz dazu keimten die Samen von Agropyron am schnelllsten, wenn sie am Anfang eingearbeitel wurden, und die Erschöpfung des Samenvorrats war unabhängig von Bodenbearbeirtungen im Frühjahr; sie überlebten am längsten, wenn sie im ersten Herbsi auf der Bodenoherflächc verblieben. Wurde Paraquat auf trockene Samen gespritzl. dann nahmen die Agropyron-Sdmen stark ab, da im Frühberbst des ersten Jahres Pflanzen aufliefen, was aber keine Auswirkung auf die Anzahl der auflaufenden Pflanzen in der Folgezeit hatte. Bei Agrostis wirkte Paraquat nur schwach. In den meisten Varianien der beiden Versuche überlebten mehr Samen von Agrostis ah von .Agropyron. Im vicrten Jahr des Feldvcrsuchs liefen durchschnittlich etwa 0,03% der Agropvron-Samcn auf, während bei .Agrostis im fünften jahr etwa dreimal soviel erwartet werden können. Die Zahl der in den Folgejahren a ufgelaufenen Keimpflanzen nahm bcsounders bei Agrostis nicht kontinuierlich von Jahr zu Jahr ab. Es gab einige Hinweise dafür. dass die Lebensdauer von .Agrostiis-Samen im sandigen Lehmboden grösser sein könnte als im Schluff-Lehm- boden. Es wird auf den wesentlich geringeren Prozentsatz an Samen unter Feld- als unter Gewächshausbedingungen hingewiesen. Die Folgen diescr BEfunde für die praktische Bekämplung, insbesondere, dass dcr SamenvorraT im Boden von der ersten Bodenbearbeitung abhängig ist, werden kurzdiskutiert.     

Growth of Elymus repens (L.) Gould and Agrostis gigantea Roth. at different light intensities

Elymus repens (L.) Gould and Agrostis gigantea Roth. raised from rhizomes both responded to reduced light intensity by increased stem length, while the number of aerial shoots was reduced. The weight of the aerial parts was not influenced by a 50% reduction of the daylight intensity, but a further reduction of light caused a significant decrease in weight. The production of new rhizomes was more influenced by shading than were the aerial shoots. The consequence was an increase in the shoot/rhizome ratio. The food reserve per bud measured as inter-node weight in E. repens and A. gigantea was reduced only with intensive shading, and the vitality of the rhizomes appeared independent of light intensity. Intensive shading in early as compared to late summer caused a reduction in the number and weight of aerial shoots, but not in the weight of new rhizomes. Light intensities equal to those found in a spring wheat crop allowed more E. repens growth than light intensities equal to those in a spring oat crop. E. repens raised from seeds and grown at light intensities equal to those found in a cereal crop, showed insignificant rhizome production.     

The effect of temperature and nitrogen level on the morphology of Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv.

The effects of temperature and nitrogen level on the morphology of Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. were investigated in a factorial experiment involving three temperatures (10°, 15° and 20°C) and three nitrogen levels (15, 120 and 960 ppm N). The main effects on axillary bud outgrowth were found at 15 ppm N and 10°C. At 15 ppm N there was an increase in the frequency of dormant buds in the axils of the coleoptile and leaf 3, and a tendency for the buds in the axils of leaves 1 and 2 to produce rhizomes or rhizome-tillers instead of tillers. At 10°C there was a high proportion of dormant buds in the colcoptile axil but all buds in higher axils grew out. Both 15 ppm N and 10°C led to the production of relatively fewer secondary rhizomes and tillers. Maximum leaf length was attained at 20°C/120 ppm N, when leaves were 40–50% longer than those at 10°C/15 ppm N. Nitrogen level had little effect on total stem height, but at all nitrogen levels stem height and the height of individual internodes increased with increasing temperature. The size of the shoot apex and the number of leaf primordia borne on it increased with decreasing temperature and increasing nitrogen level. Effets de la temperature et du niveau d'azote sur la morphologie de l'Agropyron repens (L) Beauv. Les effets de la témperature et du niveau d'azote sur la morphologie de l'Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. ont étéétudiés dans une expérience factorielle mettant en jeu trois températures (10°, 15° et 20° C) et trois niveaux d'azote (15, 120 et 960 ppm). L'effet principal sur l'éclosion du bourgeon axillaire a été observéà 15 ppm d'azote et 10° C. A 15 ppm d'azote, il y a eu un accroissement de la fréquence des bourgeons dormants aux aisselles du coleoptile, et de la feuille 3, et une tendance pour les bourgeons aux aisselles des feuilles 1 et 2 à produire des rhizomes ou des tallesrhizomes au lieu de talles. A 10° C il y a eu une proportion élevée de bourgeons dormants à l'aisselle du coléoptile, mais tous les bourgeons des aisselles plus élevées sc sont dévetoppés. 15 ppm d'azolc et 10° C ont provoqué une production reiativement plus faible de rhizomes secondaires et de talles. La longueur maximale des feuilles a été atteinte a 20° C et 120 ppm d'azote, lorsque les feuilles furent 40 à 50% plus longues que celles obtenues a 10° C et 15 ppni d'azote. Le niveau d'azote a eu peu d'influence sur la hauteur totale de la tige, mais, à tous les niveaux d'azote, la hauteur de la tige et celle des internoeuds individuets a augments avec la temperature. La taille de l'apex des pousses et le nombre d'ébauches de feuilles apparaissant dessus a augmentéà mesure que la température diminuait et que s'accroissait le niveau d'azote. Die Wirkung von Temperatur und Stickstoffversorgung auf die Morphologie von Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. In einem mehrfaktoriellen Versuch wurde der Einfluβ von Temperatur (10, 15 and 20°C) und Stickstoffgaben (15, 120 und 960 ppm N) auf die Morphologie von Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. untcrsucht. Die Hauptwirkung auf den Austrieb der Achselknospen wurde bei 15 ppm N und 10°C beobachtet. Bei 15 ppm N war eine Zunahme in der Häufigkeit dormanter Knospen in der Koleoptilenachsel und der Achsel des dritten Blattes zu verzeichnen. Weiterhin bestand die Tendenz, daβ die Knospen in den Blattacbseln des 1. und des 2. Blattes Rhizome oder Rhizom-Bestockungstriebe siatt Bestockungstriebe bildelen. Bei 10°C war ein groβer Anteil dormanter Knospen in der Koleoptilachsel vorhanden; aber alle Knospen der höheren Achseln trieben aus. 15 ppm N, als auch 10°C bewirkten die Bildung von relaliv wenigen sekundären Rhizomen und Bestockungstrieben. Maximale Blattiängen wurden bei 20°C/120 ppm N erhalten. Hierbei waren die Blätter um 40–50% Iänger als bei 10°C/15 ppm N. Der Slickstoffgehalt hatte nur eine geringe Wirkung auf die gesamte Sproβhöhe, aber bei alien Stickstoffgehaiten nahm die Sproβhöhe und die Länge der Internodien mit steigender Temperatur zu. Das Ausmaβ der Sproβspitze und die Zahl der Blattaniagen nahm mit abnehmender Temperatur und steigender Stickstoffversorgung zu.     

The control of Agropyron repens (L) Beauv. in the stubble using glyphosate

A series of experiments using N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine (glyphosate) for controlling Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. is described. Glyphosate, applied to undisturbed stubble in 1971 and 1972 controlled A. repens well. Rotary cultivation 5 weeks (1971) or 8 weeks (1972) prior to treatment, or 8 days after treatment (1972) did not affect the subsequent control. In two out of three experiments control of this weed resulted in significant increases in barley yield. This increase especially in one experiment was partly due to the inability to produce a good seedbed on the untreated control plots because of the vegetation. On the site where no increase in yield was measured, the population of A. repens was much less. Lutte contre l'Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. dans les chaumes, avec le glyphosate Une série d'essais utilisant la N-(phosphonométhyl) glycine (glyphosate) pour lutter contre l'Agropyron repens (L) Beauv. sont décrits. Le glyphosate appliqué sur des chaumes non retournés en 1971 et 1972 a fait preuve d'une bonne efficacité contre A. repens. Une façon culturale rotative exécutée 5 semaines (1971) ou 8 semaines (1972) avant le traitement, ou 8 jours après le traitement (1972) n'a pas affecté Fefficacité ultérieure. Dans deux des essais sur trois, l'efficacité contre cette mauvaise herbe s'est traduite par une augmentation significative du rendement de l'orge. Cette augmentation, en particulier dans un essai, a été provoquée en partie par l'impossibilité d'obtenir un bon lit de semence dans les parcelles non traitées, en raison de la végétation. Dans les emplacements où il n'a pas élé constaté d'accroissement de rendement, la population d'A. repensétait beaucoup plus faible. Die Bekämpfung von Agropyron repens (i.) Beauv. auf der Stoppel mit Glyphosate Es wird eine Reihe von Versuchen beschrieben, in denen N-(Phosphonomethyl)glycin (Glyphosate) zur Bekämpfung von Agropyron repens (L) Beauv. eingesetzt wurde. Die Anwendung von Glyphosate in unbearbeiteter Stoppel in den Jahren 1971 und 1972, führte zu einer guten Bekämpfung von A. repens. Fräsen 5 Wochen (1971) bzw. 8 Wochen (1972) vor der Behandlung, oder 8 Tage nach der Behandlung (1972), beeinträchtigte den Bekämpfungserfolg nicht. In zwei von drei Versuchen bewirkte die Queckenbekämpfung einen gesicherten Mehrertrag bei Gerste. Besonders in einem Versuch war dieser Mehrertrag auf die starke Verqueckung in Unbehandelt zurückzuführen, wo eine optimale Bereitung des Saatbetts nicht möglich war. Dort, wo kein Ertragszuwachs festgestellet werden konnte, war die Verseu-chung mit A. repens viel schwächer.     

Fate of glyphosate in Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. growing under low temperature conditions

Absorption, translocation and distribution of ¹⁴C-glyphosate were examined in Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. plants growing under field conditions in the autumn. Glyphosate absorption did not increase beyond 3 days after application, whereas translocation to the rhizomes continued up to 7 days after application. The translocated glyphosate accumulated more in new rhizomes than in older parts of the rhizomes. Ten per cent of the glyphosate translocated out of the treated shoot was recovered in younger shoots 7 days after application. Plants harvested the following spring contained less than 20% of the glyphosate originally applied. Although a growth cabinet experiment indicated that 34% of the glyphosate in the rhizomes of treated plants could be remobi-lized into new aerial shoots, considerably less was recovered in new, aerial shoots in the spring in the field-grown plants. Freezing experiments showed that glyphosate translocation to the rhizomes was only prevented when cold treatment caused visible damage to A. repens foliage.     

Physiological effects of buthidazole on Zea mays L., Amaratithus retroflexus L., Medicago sativa L. and Agropyron repens(L.) Beauv.*

Buthidazole (3-[5-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-1,3.4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-4-hydroxy-l-methyl-2-imidazolidinone) at concentrations of 10^?6-10^?4M did not affect germination of corn (Zea mays L.,‘Pioneer 3780’), redroot pigweed (Amaranlhus retroflexus L.), alfalfa (Medicago saliva L., ‘Vernal’), and quackgrass (Agropyron repens(L.) Beauv.) seeds. Stressing the seeds obtained from mature corn plants treated either pre-emergence or pre- plant incorporated with buthidazole at several rates by accelerated ageing and cold treatments further indicated that this herbicide did not affect germination. Total photosynthesis and dark respiration of corn plants 12 days after pre-emergence application and of redroot pigweed, alfalfa, and quackgrass plants after postemergence application of buthidazole at several rates were measured with an infrared CO₂ analyser. The results suggested that buthidazole was a rapid inhibitor of photosynthesis of the sensitive redroot pigweed and quackgrass plants, with less effect on corn and alfalfa. Buthidazole did not affect respiration of the examined species except for a transitory increase in corn and alfalfa 12 days after pre-emergence or 4 h after postemergence treatment with buthidazole at 0.56 or 1.12 and 2.24 kg/ha, respectively. A long-term inhibition of quackgrass respiration 96 h after treatment with buthidazole at 1.12 and 224 kg/ha was also evident.     

Response of weed emergence to rate of Vicia villosa Roth and Secale cereale L. residue

Vicia villosa Roth (hairy vetch) or Secale cereale L. (rye) residue at 2 to 4 times the natural field rate reduced seedling emergence of a wide variety of weed species. However, the natural rate of residue was insufficient for control of most weed species. The form of the response of weed emergence to increasing rates of residue varied among species: emergence of some species showed a monotonic decline in response to increasing rates of residue whereas emergence of others increased at low rates before declining at higher rates. In addition to reducing number of seedlings, high rates of residue delayed the date of emergence. Seed size was generally not a good indicator of a species' ability to emerge through residue, although one very large seeded weed, Abutilon theophrasti. was especially insensitive to residue. V. villosa and 5. cereale did not differ greatly in their effect on weeds early in the growing season, but V. villosa decomposed more rapidly and allowed greater emergence later in the season. Effet de résidus de Vicia villosa Roth et de Secale cereale L. sur la levée des mauvaises herbes Des résidus de Vicia villosa Roth (Vesce velue) et de Secale cereale L. (seigle) à 2–4 fois la quan-tité normale réduisaient la levée d'un large spectre de mauvaises herbes. Cependant la quantité normale de résidus était insuffisante pour lutter contre la plupart d'entre elles. La réponse de la levée des mauvaises herbes à des quantités crois-santes de rVsidus différait selon les espèces. Pour certaines, la levée subissait un déclin monotone; pour d'autres, elle augmentait en présence de faible quantités de reésidus puis décroissait pour des quantités plus importantes. Ces dernières réduisaient la levée et la retardaient également. La taille des graines n'était généralement pas un bon indicateur de la capacité des espèces à lever au travers des résidus, bien qu'une trèAs grosse grains, Abutilon theophrasti Medic., était particu-lièrement insensible aux résidus. V. villosa et 5. cereale ne différaient pas beaucoup dans leur effet sur les mauvaises herbes en début de saison, mais V. villosa se décomposait plus rapidement et permettait des levees plus importantes en fin de saison. Wirkung von Emterückständen von Vicia villosa Roth und Secale cereale L. aufdie Keimung von Unkräutern Durch 2- bis 4 fache Ernteräckstände der Be-haarten Wicke (Vicia villosa) und des Roggens (Secale cereale) wurde die Keimung einer großen Zahl von Unkrautarten herabgesetzt. Normale Ernterückstandsmengen behinderten jedoch die Keimung nur unzureichen. Die Art und Weise der Reaktion der Keimung auf höhere Riick-stände war von Art zu Art verschieden: Die Keimung einiger Arten nahm mit zunehmender Menge an Ernterückständen gleichmäßig ab, während sie bei anderen bei niedrigen Mengen anstieg, urn dann bei höheren Mengen abzunehmen. Zusätzlich zur Verringerung der Keimpflanzendichte wurde bei hohen Rück-standsmengen die Keimung verzögert. Die Samengröße war im allgemeinen kein guter Indikator für die Fähigkeit einer Art, durch das Rückstandsmaterial zu keimen, obwohl eine Art mit großen Samen, Abutilon theophrasti, gegenüber diesen Rückständen besonders unempfindlich war. Die Rückstände der beiden Kulturpflanzen zeigten zu Beginn der Vegetationsperiode keine großen Wirkungsunterschiede, aber die Rückstände von Vicia villosa zerfielen schneller und ließen später eine stärkere Keimung zu.     

Effect of seed age and cultivation on seedling emergence and seed decline of Avena fatua L. in winter barley

Avena fatua was sown in a cultivation experiment in the autumn of 3 successive years. For each population seedling emergence and viable seeds in the soil were recorded for 4 years in crops of winter barley in which new seed production was prevented. About half of the seeds sown were recovered after 1 year. In subsequent years viable seeds in the soil declined more rapidly with tine cultivation than with ploughing. After 4 years up to 5% of the original seeds were still viable. One population exhibited greater seed dormancy than the other two populations, due it is thought to higher summer rainfall and the greater availability of moisture during seed maturation. Most seedlings emerged in the autumn and spring, between 12 and 18 months after sowing. A total of 950 seedlings emerged from 12 000 seeds sown; 21% of these seedlings came from new seeds (< 1 year old), 57% from seeds 1–2 years old, 14% from seeds 2–3 years old and 8% from seeds 3–4 years old. Autumn seedlings arose fairly evenly from all age groups while spring seedlings mostly came from the 1–2-year-old seeds. With tine cultivation total seedlings over 4 years represented 9–7% and with ploughing 6–2% of the original seeds sown. A. fatua was more persistent than in previous experiments in spring barley, which suggests that control measures would have to be applied for longer in a succession of winter cereals than spring-sown crops to reduce A. fatua to low populations.     

The effect of nitrogen fertilizers on the germination and seedling emergence of wild oat (A. fatua L.) seed in different soil types

Ammonium-containing fertilizers such as granular limestone ammonium nitrate (LAN) and liquid ammonium nitrate (AN) proved to be most effective in stimulating germination and emergence of wild oat in sandy and loamy soil. In pot experiments, rates as low as 25 kg N ha^?1, significantly increased seedling emergence of wild oat. In sandy soil percentage emergence increased with increasing levels of LAN-fertilizer up to 125 kg N ha^?1 which gave 76·1 % emergence after 60 days. In control pots where no nitrogen was applied, only 21·6% of seeds planted emerged after 60 days, In loamy soil, as for AN in both soil types, high levels of LAN initially delayed seedling emergence. This negative effect disappeared approximately 15 days after seeding, resulting in no significant difference in emergence of wild oat where 25 to 125 kg N ha^?1 was applied as LAN or AN. All these rates, however, increased seedling emergence between 25 and 35% compared to the no-nitrogen treatments. Since the same rate of ammonia gas is not equally effective in breaking dormancy of semi- and deeply dormant wild oat seed, results of these experiments are not necessarily applicable to wild oat seeds differing in dormancy status.     

Field emergence of Lamium amplexicaule L. and L. purpureum L. in relation to the annual seed dormancy cycle

Seedling emergence of Lamium amplexicaule L. and L. purpureum L. was monitored in field plots tilled at various times during the growing season, and the number of viable seeds in the soil was determined. In plots tilled in early spring, only seeds of L. amplexicaule, germinated, but seeds of both species germinated in the same plots in autumn without further disturbance. Additional seeds of L. amplexicaule, but not of L. purpureum, germinated the following spring. In plots tilled in late spring and summer, seeds of L. amplexicaule germinated in autumn and the following spring, whereas seeds of L. purpureum germinated only in autumn. The number of viable seeds in the top 13 mm layer of soil ranged from 189 to 1216 m^?2 for L. amplexicaule and from 131 to 854 for L. purpureum. These field results support those obtained in previous glasshouse-laboratory physiological studies on the annual dormancy cycle in the two Lamium species. Levée au champ de Lamium amplexicaule L. et L. purpureum L. par rapport au cycle annuel de la dormance des graines La levée de jeunes plants de Lamium amplexicaule L. et L. purpureum L. a été observée sur des parcelles cultivées à différentes époques de la saison de végétation et le nombre de graines viables au sol a été déterminé. Sur les parcelles cultivées en début de printemps, seules les graines de L. amplexicaule ont germé, mais des graines des deux espèces ont germé en automne sur les mêmes parcelles, sans cultivation ultérieure. Au printemps suivant, une nouvelle germination a été constatée chez L. amplexicaule mais pas chez L. purpureum. Sur les parcelles cultivées en fin de printemps et en été, des graines de L. amplexicaule ont germé en automne et aussi au printemps suivant, tandis que les graines de L. purpureum n'ont germé qu'en automne. Le nombre de graines viables dans les premiers 13 mm de la surface du sol allait de 189 à 1216 m^?2 pour L. amplexicaule et de 131 à 854 pour L. purpureum. Ces résultats sur le terrain confirment ceux obtenus dans des études physiologiques sur le cycle annuel de dormance chez les deux espèces de Lamium, menées préalablement en serre et au laboratoire. Ueber dus Auflaufen von Lamium amplexicaule L. und L. purpureum L. in Bezug auf den Jährlichen Zyklus der Samenruhe unter Feldbedingungen In Parzellen, die zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten während der Vegetationsperiode einer Boden-bearbeitung unterworfen worden waren, wurde sowohl das Auflaufen der Keimlinge von Lamium amplexicaule L. und L. purpureum L. registriert, als auch die Anzahl lebenfähiger Samen festgestellt. Nach Bodenbearbeitung im frühen Frühling keimten nur Samen von L. amplexicaule; im Herbst keimten in denselben Parzellen jedoch Samen beider Arten, sofern der Boden nicht mehr bewegt worden war. Weitere Samen von L. amplexicaule, nicht aber von L. purpureum, keimten im folgenden Frühling. In Parzellen, die im späten Frühling und im Sommer bearbeitet worden waren, keimte L. amplexicaule im Herbst und im folgenden Frühling. Während L. purpureum nur im Herbst keimte. Die Anzahl lebensfähiger Samen m^?2 in den obersten 13 mm des Bodens bewegte sich zwischen 189 und 1216 für L. amplexicaule und zwischen 131 und 854 für L. purpureum. Diese Feldresultate bestätigen Ergebnisse von Gewüchshausstudien über den jährlichen Zyklus der Samenruhe der beiden Lamium-Arten.     

Factors affecting glyphosate activity in Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. and Cyperus rotundus L. II: effect of shade

Imperata cylindrica and Cyperus rotundus were grown under three different light regimes; unshaded, 50% shade, and 75% shade and no shade plus 75% shade before and after spraying, (temporary shade) in a heated greenhouse. Six weeks after the start of the experimenis, glyphosate was applied to the plants at 0·2, 0·4 and 0·8 kg/ha (for Imperata) or 0·3, 0·6 and 1·2 kg/ha (for Cyperus). Glyphosate toxicity was enhanced as shade increased. In Imperata, all shade regimes at all rates of glyphosate eaused greater damage to the plants than the unshaded regime. The reduction in shoot dry weight, rhizome dry weight and total carbohydrate content of Imperate rhizotties at 75% continuous and temporary shaiie conditions, with the lowest rate of glyphosate, was almost twice as much as the reduction in the same features m the unshaded plants caused by the highest rate of glyphosate. In Cyperus. glyphosate at the intermediate and highest rates decreased the shoot dry weight at 75% continuous shade by 79% and 98% respectively. Plants in 50% shade were significantly affected only at the highest rate of glyphosate. Sprouting ability of the tubers al 75% continuous shade was inhibited when the tubers were replanted for recovery. Enhanced toxicity of glyphosate in reduced light intensity was attributed to the morphological changes in the nature of the leaves caused by shade.     

Aerial seed germination and morphological characteristics of juvenile seedlings in Commelina benghalensis L.

Seed germination, seedling emergence, and the morphological characteristics of juvenile seedlings of Commelina benghalensis L. were observed. For aerial seeds collected in September and October, seedling emergence peaked in April and June for large seeds and from June to August for small seeds, whereas seedling emergence for large seeds collected in November showed peaks in March and April under natural rainfall conditions, and in April and June under irrigation conditions. Seedlings from small seeds emerged intermittently over a longer period from April to August under both conditions. Aerial seeds of C. benghalensis germinated on wet filter paper on the second day after seeding (DAS) for large seeds and the fourth DAS for small seeds. The germination percentage for large seeds was higher than that for small seeds by the 14th DAS. The germination percentage for large aerial seeds showed no significant difference between light and dark conditions. However, the percentage for small aerial seeds was higher under light than under dark conditions. Seedlings from large aerial seeds emerged on the third DAS at 0–50 mm soil depths. The percentage of emergence at 0 and 1 mm soil depths increased until the 30th DAS, whereas those at soil depths of 5–50 mm showed no change after the 9th DAS. There was no emergence at a soil depth of 100 mm. Seedlings from small aerial seeds emerged on the 6th DAS at 0–1 mm soil depths, with the percentage increasing until the 30th DAS. Although seedlings at 5 and 10 mm soil depths also emerged on the 6th DAS, there was no change in the percentage after the 12th DAS. There was no emergence at soil depths of 20–100 mm. The hypocotyl and taenia (part of the cotyledon connected to the seed) in juvenile seedlings that emerged from soil depths of 50 mm were longer than those in seedlings emerging from a soil depth of 1 mm.     

Reservoirs of plant virus disease: Occurrence of wheat dwarf virus and barley/cereal yellow dwarf viruses in Sweden

Non-crop plants such as grasses and volunteer plants are an inseparable part of the flora of crop fields and can influence virus incidence in crop plants. The presence of grasses as virus reservoirs can lead to a higher probability of virus incidence in crop plants. However, the role of reservoirs as an inoculum source in agricultural fields has not been well studied for many viral diseases of crops. Grasses have been found to constitute potential reservoirs for cereal-infecting viruses in different parts of the world. This study revealed that cereal-infecting viruses such as wheat dwarf virus (WDV), barley yellow dwarf viruses (BYDVs), and cereal yellow dwarf virus-RPV (CYDV-RPV) can be found among ryegrass growing in or around winter wheat fields. Phylogenetic analysis showed that a WDV isolate from ryegrass was a typical WDV-E isolate that infects wheat. Similarly, a ryegrass isolate of barley yellow dwarf virus-PAV (BYDV-PAV) grouped in a clade together with other BYDV-PAV isolates. Inoculation experiments under greenhouse conditions confirmed that annual ryegrass of various genotypes can be infected with WDV to a very low titre. Moreover, leafhoppers were able to acquire WDV from infected ryegrass plants, despite the low titre, and transmit the virus to wheat, resulting in symptoms. Information from the grass reservoir may contribute to improving strategies for controlling plant virus outbreaks in the field. Knowledge of the likely levels of virus in potential reservoir plants can be used to inform decisions on insect vector control strategies and may help to prevent virus disease outbreaks in the future.     

Biology of Commelina benghalensis L. in south-eastern Queensland. 1. Growth, development and seed production

Experiments conducted at Kingaroy in southeastern Queensland, investigated growth, development and seed production of Commelina benghalensis L. a weed of field crops, which produces aerial and underground flowers. Plants were grown from four seed types (large and small seeds from the two types of flowers) in pots exposed to the weather and in the field. Development was faster, and growth and seed production were greater in the field than in pots. Plants grown from aerial seeds were smaller, developed aerial flowers earlier, and produced more aerial fruits than plants grown from underground seeds. Rhizomes and underground flowers began to develop 6 weeks after emergence on plants from all seed types, prior to the development of aerial flowers. Seed production in the field was 8000 m^?2 for plants grown from underground seeds and 12000 m^?2 for plants grown from aerial seeds. Small aerial seeds represented 73–79% of the total seed production, large aerial seeds 19–22%, and underground seeds only 1–3%.     

Surveys of cereal diseases and pests in the Netherlands. 3. Monographella nivalis and Fusarium spp. in winter wheat fields and seed lots

Data from surveys of winter wheat fields in the period 1974–1986 and of seed lots in the period 1962–1986 and identifications of diseases on plant samples were compiled to describe the occurrence of snow mould (Monographella nivalis) andFusarium spp. On average,M. nivalis dominated overFusarium spp. The complex ofFusarium spp. constituted mainly ofF. culmorum, followed byF. avenaceum andF. graminearum. M. nivalis was dominant in May on stem-bases and in July on leaves and leaf sheaths. On seedsM. nivalis predominated only in years with low temperatures in July and August.Average brown footrot infection in the field was 4% tillers in May and 5% culms in July. Brown footrot intensity in July was high in cropping seasons with high precipitation in October and with low temperatures in October, November and December. In July during the early eighties, an average of 8% of leaves and 6% of flag leaf sheaths were infected byM. nivalis. Average ear blight incidence was 1.2% glumes infected. Seed contamination by these pathogens averaged 16% in the years 1962–1986. The contamination was high in years with high precipitation in June, July and August. Aspects of cv. resistance and yield loss are illustrated.     

The effect of nitrogen on the growth and development of giant witchweed,Striga hermonthica Benth.: effect on cultured germinated seedlings in host absence

For the first time in sterile nutrient media in the absence of the host plant, different forms and rates of nitrogen compounds were screened for their effect onS. hermonthica Benth. shoot development beyond seed germination. There was no shoot formation beyond the inoculation stages whenS. hermonthica germlings were grown in media devoid of nitrogen source. In culture media containing some nitrogen sources, healthy shoots were formed. Increasing concentrations of KNO₃, NaNO₃, Ca(NO₃)₂, Mg(NO₃)₂ and asparagine resulted in a significant increase inS. hermonthica shoot development. Inversely, increasing concentrations of (NH₄)₂SO₄, NH₄H₂PO₄, NH₄Cl and urea led to increasing significant reduction ofS. hermonthica shoot development. The amino acids, glycine and asparagine supported reduced shoot development ofS. hermonthica, indicating that organic nitrogen cannot replace inorganic nitrogen forStriga growth. The ammonium nitrogen compounds, (NH₄)₂SO₄ and NH₄H₂PO₄, suppressed further shoot elongation and total dry weight of 20 and 40 days oldStriga hermonthica plants, in sterile culture media. The organic compounds urea, allylthiourea and thiourea had an effect similar to ammonium compounds. Arginine and glycine on the other hand did not suppress the further development of the parasite. The suppressive effect of nitrogen however, was greater when the parasite was 20 days old than when it was 40 days old. This work provides data to show that some nitrogen compounds reduce the severity ofS. hermonthica attack by direct suppression ofStriga growth and development at the post-germination stage and after shoots have been formed.     

A genetic study of the relationship between height, time of ear emergence and resistance to Septoria nodorum in wheat

Winter wheat cultivars of varying height were intercrossed and the progeny were studied in field trials to determine whether the greater resistance to S. nodorum of the taller cultivars was fortuitous or the result of genetic association.
Variation in height, in resistance and in time of ear emergence was continuous, providing no evidence of the existence of individual genes of major effect. In F₂ and backcross generations, the inheritance of all three characters was principally additive. Among random F₃ and F₄ families there was a clear tendency for tall straw and resistance to segregate together, proving that the association between these characters was not fortuitous and providing evidence of linkage or pleiotropy in their genetic control. There was a similar though less consistent tendency for late ear emergence and resistance to segregate together. There was substantial residual variation in resistance, not associated with variation in height or time of ear emergence, but its heritability was difficult to prove by comparisons between F₃ and F₄ generations, perhaps partly because of genotype x environment interaction.
It is proposed that resistance is under polygenic control and pleiotropy rather than linkage is suggested as the explanation of its genetic association with height and with time of ear emergence. The existence of genes affecting resistance independently of height and time of ear emergence is also inferred. It is suggested that they permit the breeding of resistant cultivars of any height, though with increasing difficulty as height is reduced.     

Quantifying the effect of interactions between disease control,nitrogen supply and land use change on the greenhouse gas emissions associated with wheat production

A method for calculating the effect of disease control on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with wheat production, reported previously, was developed further to account for effects of disease control on the amount of fertilizer nitrogen (N) which should be applied and on changes in land use. Data from nine randomized and replicated field experiments from the UK and Denmark showed that the economic optimum N input to winter wheat was greater if diseases were controlled by fungicides, than for untreated wheat. The GHGs associated with this additional N largely negated the benefit to emissions per tonne of grain resulting from disease control. However, the mean grain yield obtained without fungicide treatment was 6·71 t ha^?1, compared to 8·88 t ha^?1 with fungicide treatment, if N input was optimal for each situation. In the absence of disease control by fungicides, and assuming that the optimum N rate was used, an additional 481 kha of wheat would be required to maintain UK wheat production at the current level. If the additional land area came from converting temperate grassland to arable production, the GHG emissions caused by ploughing grassland would cause emissions to rise from 503 to 713 kg CO₂e per tonne of grain produced. This would result in an additional 3·15 Mt CO₂e per year to produce the typical UK annual production of 15 Mt. This analysis reinforces the importance of winning the ‘arms race’ against pathogen evolution towards fungicide insensitivity and virulence.     

Annual weed competition in wheat crops: the effect of weed density and applied nitrogen

Experiments investigating the effect of weed density on the yjeld of a wheat crop at three levels of applied nitrogen were conducted in north-western Victoria. Australia, during 1970. There were five sites, each infested with a pure stand of one of the following annual broad-leaved weed species: Lithospermum arvense, Brassica tournifortii. Lamium amplt'xicaule, Amsinckia hispida and Fumaria parviflora. At the three-leaf stage of crop growth, the weed populations were systematically thinned with a specially developed spray boon) (which is described) to give a range of weed densities in competition) with the crop. The relalionship between dry matter production and population density for all but one weed species was curvilinear, but the degree of curvature was small and competition in the wheat crop was linear for four of the five weed species. There were large differences in the competitive ability of individual weed species and these have been described by regression equations. Applied nitrogen increased wheat yields at all sites but weed competition was not affected. The use of these grain yield-weed density relationships in predicting crop losses from weed competition is discussed.