Domestic livestock resources of Turkey

Water buffalo are an ancient component of Turkey’s domestic livestock resources. Commonly referred to as the Anatolian buffalo the animal is part of the Mediterranean group which includes Syrian, Egyptian and Southeast European animals. Once quite numerous, there have been drastic reductions in their numbers since the 1970s due to intensification of dairy activities, agricultural mechanization and changing consumer preferences. The main areas of distribution are in northwest Turkey in the Marmara and Black Sea Regions. Buffalo are kept in small herds by livestock and mixed crop–livestock farmers. Milk is the main product, meat is largely a by-product of the dairy function and provision of the once-important draught power is now a minor output. Buffalo milk is used to prepare a variety of speciality products but output of both milk and meat is very low in comparison to cattle. Conditions of welfare and health status are not optimal. Internal parasites are a constraint on productivity. Some buffalo are being used for conservation grazing in the Black Sea area to maintain optimal conditions for bird life in a nature reserve. Long neglected by government there are recent activities to establish conservation herds, set up in vitro banks and undertake molecular characterization. More effort is needed by government to promote buffalo production and to engage the general public in conservation of their national heritage.     

Laparoscopic Ovariectomy in Standing Mule Mares

Mules are hybrids bred from the mating of a jack donkey and a horse mare, known for their strength and resistance and still used to work in agriculture. Although they have been for long considered sterile, evidence of estrus cycle has been demonstrated together with abnormal behavior related to ovarian activity. In this study, a bilateral standing laparoscopic ovariectomy technique using the LigaSure technology was applied in 10 mare mules for treating unwanted behavioral patterns. The technique was effectively performed on these animals avoiding the risk of general anesthesia, and the use of the LigaSure technology allowed good hemostasis and reduced surgical time. Owners declared to be satisfied with the resolution of the behavior.     

Successful Non-Surgical Transfer of Horse Embryos to Mule Recipients

Mules, hybrids resulting from the mating of a horse mare (Equus caballus, 2n = 64) to a Jack donkey (E. asinus, 2n = 62), are generally infertile. Five horse embryos were transferred non‐surgically to two cyclic and one acyclic recipient mules. In the mares and cycling mules, oestrus and ovulation were induced with, respectively, d ‐cloprostenol and human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG). The acyclic mule, on the other hand, received oestradiol benzoate when the embryo donor was showing oestrus and progesterone after the donor had ovulated and until pregnancy diagnosis. Non‐surgical embryo collections were attempted on day 7 after ovulation and recovered embryos were transferred transcervically into the mules’ uteri. Mules that became pregnant were blood sampled serially for equine chorion gonadotrophin (eCG), progestagen and total conjugated oestrogen concentrations until around 6 months of gestation. The three embryos transferred to the acyclic mule did not produce any pregnancies whereas both embryos transferred to the cycling mules resulted in the birth of live foals. The peak concentration and duration of secretion of eCG differed markedly between the two pregnant mules, although both animals appeared to develop secondary corpora lutea beyond day 40 of gestation, as in normal intraspecies horse pregnancy. Moreover, the rise in serum oestrogen concentrations from around day 90 was also similar to that seen in normal pregnant mares. Parturition occurred spontaneously on day 348 of gestation in both mules and the resulting colt foals developed normally to weaning. Thus, cycling mules can carry a horse conceptus after non‐surgical embryo transfer and give birth to a normal mature foal.     

Strategies for the management of donkey jacks in intensive breeding systems

Donkeys are bred throughout the world and often play an important role in agriculture. They are also bred to produce mules. Traditionally, jacks are considered challenging to breed in domestic conditions, whether for natural breeding or semen collection using either jennies or mares. The donkey's natural sexual behaviour significantly differs from that of other domestic animals. This presents challenges for in‐hand donkey breeding, particularly on mule studs where normally only jacks and mares are kept for breeding. This article describes some of the authors' observations on sexual behaviour in donkeys and practical experience of some of the strategies employed to apply this knowledge to breeding management, in order to improve the success of using donkeys for both natural service and semen collection.     

ASAS-NANP SYMPOSIUM: Review of systems thinking concepts and their potential value in animal science research

Worldwide, our collective research and policy institutions, including the American Society of Animal Science (ASAS), are calling for more systems-based research and analysis of society’s most pressing and complex problems. However, the use of systems analysis within animal science remains limited and researchers may not have the tools to answer this call. This review thus introduces important concepts in systems thinking methodology, such as policy resistance, feedback processes, and dynamic complexity. An overall rationale for systems thinking and analysis is presented, along with examples of the application of these concepts in current animal science research. In order to contrast systems approaches to more frequently employed event-oriented research frameworks, both frameworks are then applied to the ASAS’ identified “Grand Challenge” problem of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in order to compare these two kinds of analyses. Systems thinking stresses the importance of underlying system structures that lead to persistent problem behaviors vs a focus on unidirectional cause-and-effect relationships. A potential systems framework for animal production decisions to use antimicrobials is shown that more explicitly accounts for AMR in a way that can lead to different animal production decisions than the event-oriented framework. Acknowledging and accounting for fundamental system structures that can explain persistent AMR will lead to different potential solutions to this problem than would be suggested from more linear approaches. The challenges and benefits of incorporating systems methods into animal science research are then discussed.     

Anaesthesia and analgesia of the donkey and the mule

The number of donkeys and mules throughout the world is stable, and awareness of their use and concern for welfare, pain recognition and treatment are receiving increasing veterinary interest. Therefore, accurate information about anaesthesia and analgesia in donkeys and mules is important to ever more equine practitioners. Since donkeys are physiologically and pharmacologically different from horses, knowledge on species specific aspects of anaesthesia and analgesia are very important. Mules combine elements from both donkey and horse backgrounds, leading to great diversity in size, temperament and body type. Physiologically, they seem to resemble horses more than donkeys. This review highlights the current knowledge on various anaesthetic and analgesic approaches in donkeys and mules. There is still much information that is not available about donkeys; in many circumstances, the clinician must use available equine information to treat the patient, while monitoring carefully to observe for differences in response to therapy compared to the horse.     

The Past,Present and Future of Domestic Equines in Tanzania

Equines are minor species in Tanzania’s array of domestic livestock. Attempts to use them for transport by early explorers from the mid-nineteenth century usually failed. Donkeys were used extensively as pack animals to complement human porters by both British and German forces in the First World War, but their advantages were often outweighed by slow progress and competition with troops and porters for water, and they died in huge numbers. The British had regular cavalry troops in their campaign and mules found limited use as individual mounts for officers. In modern times, there are very few horses in Tanzania but they find several uses. Exotic safaris are made on horseback, they are used as stock horses on ranches, there is a polo club in northern Tanzania and there are leisure riding activities around the capital city. Official census records for donkeys estimate numbers at under 300,000 with concentrations in the northern pastoral and agropastoral areas where they are used as pack animals with water being the main commodity transported. Elsewhere donkeys are used to a limited extent in transport and traction work. There is little interest in equines by the central and local governments or the general public and the status quo can be expected to continue.     

The Domestic Livestock Resources of Turkey: Occurrence and Control of Diseases of Horses,Donkeys and Mules

Horses, donkeys, and mules have been important in Turkey for agriculture, transport, and the military for hundreds of years. Equids number more than 0.5 million in Turkey. Most horses are local types but emphasis is now on Thoroughbreds and Arabians for racing and competitions. New roles have not materialized for donkeys and mules that continue to perform their traditional activities. Disease control is assured mainly by public services acting within laws governing diseases and welfare. African horse sickness, glanders, dourine, equine infectious anemia, vesicular stomatitis, equine encephalomyelitis, anthrax, and rabies are notifiable diseases but none of the mainly equine diseases has been reported in Turkey for many years. Several zoonoses, including toxoplasmosis, brucellosis, listeriosis, and Rhodococcus infections, have been identified by serodiagnosis over wide areas, but animals carrying antibodies rarely exhibit clinical symptoms. Among other diseases in Turkish Equidae are piroplasmosis, respiratory infections, contagious equine metritis and equine influenza. Other viral and bacterial pathogens have been identified in isolated investigations. Internal and external parasites are a major cause of economic loss. Much research on equine diseases has been undertaken in the last decade of the 20th and first decade of the 21st centuries, perhaps because of Turkey's possible accession to the European Union and the goal to harmonize identification and control procedures and also because of the country's increasing participation in international equine events. This paper reviews animal health services and provides a bibliography of more than 100 references covering horse, donkey, and mule diseases in Turkey.     

Equine infectious anemia in mules: virus isolation and pathogenicity studies

There appears to be a lack of information concerning responses of mules to natural infection or experimental inoculation with equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV). In the present study EIAV was isolated from mules, for the first time, and its pathogenicity in naturally infected and experimentally inoculated animals was investigated. Two naturally infected (A and B) and three EIAV free mules (C, D and E) were used for this purpose. Mule A developed clinical signs, whereas mule B remained asymptomatic until the end of the study. Mules C and D were each inoculated with 10ml of blood from mule A and developed signs of the disease; they were euthanatized or died at day 22 and 25 post-inoculation, respectively. Mule E served as a negative control. The virus was isolated from the plasma samples of mules with clinical signs of the disease (A, C and D), but not from the asymptomatic mule B. Both proviral DNA and viral RNA were amplified from blood and tissues of the infected animals by nested polymerase chain reaction (nPCR). Antibodies were not detected in the two experimentally infected mules until their natural death or euthanasia. Clinicopathological and laboratory findings showed that, in mules, EIAV produced clinical signs similar to those observed in horses and ponies. Nested PCR proved to be a rapid, sensitive and specific diagnostic method for the detection of EIAV, regardless of the disease stage.     

Business intelligence tools to optimize the appropriateness of the diagnostic process for clinical and epidemiologic purposes in a multicenter veterinary pathology service

Laboratory tests provide essential support to the veterinary practitioner, and their use has grown exponentially. This growth is the result of several factors, such as the eradication of historical diseases, the occurrence of multifactorial diseases, and the obligation to control endemic and epidemic diseases. However, the introduction of novel techniques is counterbalanced by economic constraints, and the establishment of evidence- and consensus-based guidelines is essential to support the pathologist. Therefore, we developed standardized protocols, categorized by species, type of production, age, and syndrome at the Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), a multicenter institution for animal health and food safety. We have 72 protocols in use for livestock, poultry, and pets, categorized as, for example, “bovine enteric calf”, “rabbit respiratory”, “broiler articular”. Each protocol consists of a panel of tests, divided into ‘mandatory’ and ‘ancillary’, to be selected by the pathologist in order to reach the final diagnosis. After autopsy, the case is categorized into a specific syndrome, subsequently referred to as a syndrome-specific panel of analyses. The activity of the laboratories is monitored through a web-based dynamic reporting system developed using a business intelligence product (QlikView) connected to the laboratory information management system (IZILAB). On a daily basis, reports become available at general, laboratory, and case levels, and are updated as needed. The reporting system highlights epidemiologic variations in the field and allows verification of compliance with the protocols within the organization. The diagnostic protocols are revised annually to increase system efficiency and to address stakeholder requests.     

Advancements in sensor technology and decision support intelligent tools to assist smart livestock farming

Remote monitoring, modern data collection through sensors, rapid data transfer, and vast data storage through the Internet of Things (IoT) have advanced precision livestock farming (PLF) in the last 20 yr. PLF is relevant to many fields of livestock production, including aerial- and satellite-based measurement of pasture’s forage quantity and quality; body weight and composition and physiological assessments; on-animal devices to monitor location, activity, and behaviors in grazing and foraging environments; early detection of lameness and other diseases; milk yield and composition; reproductive measurements and calving diseases; and feed intake and greenhouse gas emissions, to name just a few. There are many possibilities to improve animal production through PLF, but the combination of PLF and computer modeling is necessary to facilitate on-farm applicability. Concept- or knowledge-driven (mechanistic) models are established on scientific knowledge, and they are based on the conceptualization of hypotheses about variable interrelationships. Artificial intelligence (AI), on the other hand, is a data-driven approach that can manipulate and represent the big data accumulated by sensors and IoT. Still, it cannot explicitly explain the underlying assumptions of the intrinsic relationships in the data core because it lacks the wisdom that confers understanding and principles. The lack of wisdom in AI is because everything revolves around numbers. The associations among the numbers are obtained through the “automatized” learning process of mathematical correlations and covariances, not through “human causation” and abstract conceptualization of physiological or production principles. AI starts with comparative analogies to establish concepts and provides memory for future comparisons. Then, the learning process evolves from seeking wisdom through the systematic use of reasoning. AI is a relatively novel concept in many science fields. It may well be “the missing link” to expedite the transition of the traditional maximizing output mentality to a more mindful purpose of optimizing production efficiency while alleviating resource allocation for production. The integration between concept- and data-driven modeling through parallel hybridization of mechanistic and AI models will yield a hybrid intelligent mechanistic model that, along with data collection through PLF, is paramount to transcend the current status of livestock production in achieving sustainability.     

Animal health authorities and transboundary animal diseases in Turkey

In this report on the situation of transboundary animal diseases in Turkey, it is mentioned that foot and mouth disease is endemic in the Anatolia region. In 2005, 128 outbreaks occurred in Anatolia of which 100 outbreaks were caused by O type, 19 outbreaks as a result of type A and nine outbreaks as a result of a type not determined. Peste des petits ruminants is also a problem in Turkey. Thus, in 2005, 78 outbreaks occurred. In case of outbreaks, all susceptible animals were vaccinated. To support the animal disease control programmes the Central Veterinary Control and Research Institute started since May 2002 to produce a homologous vaccine.     

Dietary requirements of synthesizable amino acids by animals: a paradigm shift in protein nutrition

Amino acids are building blocks for proteins in all animals. Based on growth or nitrogen balance, amino acids were traditionally classified as nutritionally essential or nonessential for mammals, birds and fish. It was assumed that all the “nutritionally nonessential amino acids (NEAA)” were synthesized sufficiently in the body to meet the needs for maximal growth and optimal health. However, careful analysis of the scientific literature reveals that over the past century there has not been compelling experimental evidence to support this assumption. NEAA (e.g., glutamine, glutamate, proline, glycine and arginine) play important roles in regulating gene expression, cell signaling, antioxidative responses, fertility, neurotransmission, and immunity. Additionally, glutamate, glutamine and aspartate are major metabolic fuels for the small intestine to maintain its digestive function and to protect the integrity of the intestinal mucosa. Thus, diets for animals must contain all NEAA to optimize their survival, growth, development, reproduction, and health. Furthermore, NEAA should be taken into consideration in revising the “ideal protein” concept that is currently used to formulate swine and poultry diets. Adequate provision of all amino acids (including NEAA) in diets enhances the efficiency of animal production. In this regard, amino acids should not be classified as nutritionally essential or nonessential in animal or human nutrition. The new Texas A&M University’s optimal ratios of dietary amino acids for swine and chickens are expected to beneficially reduce dietary protein content and improve the efficiency of their nutrient utilization, growth, and production performance.     

The Veterinary Practitioner and Diseases Exotic to Canada

Veterinarians, in clinical practice, regulatory field work, laboratory diagnosis or research, must work together as a team, each within his area of expertise in order to protect the livestock industry of Canada from exotic diseases. This freedom from many of the serious animal plagues has allowed the development of intensive animal production units with increased vulnerability to disease and in which the impact of disease outbreaks may be more serious.In differential diagnoses one should think not only of the classical exotic diseases such as vesicular diseases, swine fever and rinderpest in today''s world, but one should constantly be on the outlook for any disease outbreak that does not quite fit the picture of the domestic diseases. From this standpoint the large animal practitioner is the very important “first line of defense” since, in all likelihood, he will be the first to see a disease exotic to Canada should that disease gain entry.     

Status of Lipid Peroxidation, Antioxidants, and Oxidation Products of Nitric Oxide in Equine Babesiosis: Status of Antioxidant and Oxidant in Equine Babesiosis

Equine babesiosis is a tick-borne protozoal disease of horses caused by Theileria equi and Babesia caballi. The disease is endemic in most tropical and subtropical areas. The aim of this paper is to assess the antioxidant status, lipid peroxidation, and oxidation products of nitric oxide (NO) in horses and mules naturally infected with T. equi and B. caballi. East and Southeast Anatolian horses and mules living in rural region of the Eastern border of Turkey were used as the material for this study. These animals are used as pack animal (3–7 years of age). Infected animals were in acute or subacute infection period. In the current study, malondialdehyde (MDA), oxidation products of NO (nitrate and nitrite), serum glutathione (GSH), vitamin E, and retinol levels were analyzed in 58 equids (horse and mule) infected with T. equi and B. caballi as well as in 44 healthy equids. Compared with controls, the level of MDA and nitrate increased significantly (P < .01, P < .05, respectively), whereas GSH concentration and levels of vitamin E decreased significantly (P < .01). There was no significant change in the level of nitrite and retinol between two groups. The results of the current study suggest that in equids infected with T. equi and B. caballi, this alteration in the lipid peroxidation, oxidants, and antioxidants may be related to the host's defenses against parasitic infection and may play a central role in the pathologic conditions associated with babesiosis.     

Flight Distance and Avoidance Score in Thoroughbred Foals and Yearlings and the Relationship with Handling Frequency in the Young Ages

Flight and avoidance reactions from human were examined using 168 postweaning Thoroughbred foals in 22 breeding farms. Further 114 yearlings of 168 foals were tested in the following summer. The foal handlings by the stabler were asked in questionnaire. The relationship between the behavioural reactions and the foal handling frequencies was analyzed. The flight reaction was estimated as the distance from the animal to a stranger when the animal began to flight away from his approach. The avoidance scores were set up from (1) (not resistant) to (5) (touch rejection) from human touching. In the stabler questionnaire, handling frequencies of “body brushing”, “rectal temperature measurement”, “hoof cleaning”, and “stall cleaning” in the early nursing period were asked. The handling frequencies were scored from (1) (not done) to (5) (every day). In the preliminary test, a measurement reliability of the flight distance and the avoidance score was confirmed. The mean flight distances were 0.56 m and 0.27 m in the postweaning foals and the yearlings, respectively. Touch-avoidance scores of the highest frequency were (3) and (2) in the postweaning foals and the yearlings, respectively. As the results of Spearman’s rank-correlation analysis, “body brushing” showed highly negative relationships with “flight distance” (ρ=–0.31, P<0.001) and “avoidance score” (ρ=–0.37, P<0.001) in the postweaning foals. In the yearlings, “hoof cleaning” also showed significantly negative relationships with these behavioural indices (ρ=–0.24, P<0.01; ρ=–0.22, P<0.01, respectively).     

Target Group Segmentation in the Horse Buyers’ Market against the Background of Equestrian Experience

Whereas in former times horses were reserved primarily for people involved in agriculture, elite equestrians or the military, nowadays equestrian sport has become an activity for people with a wide variety of backgrounds. However, as more and more people become involved with equestrian sport today, the knowledge concerning animal husbandry in general is diminishing due to an alienation from agricultural themes in modern societies. As a consequence, this development affects both riding ability and the appraisal of horses, especially with respect to the purchase of horses. In order to analyse which factors influence purchase decisions in the horse market in conjunction with equestrian experience, 739 horse riders were surveyed on their purchase behaviour in this study. Using cluster analysis, a typology was generated that provides a differentiated picture of the preferences of the various rider groups. Three clusters were distinguished: the “amateurs”, the “experienced” and the “experts”. Taking personal horse riding proficiency into account, it could be concluded that especially the “amateur” group required objective criteria for the evaluation of a horse they are considering purchasing. Alongside “measureable” qualities, such as previous showing success or the level of training of the horse, also other attributes such as the simple handling of the horse should be taken into consideration. As particularly the “amateur” group in equestrian sport is increasing in numbers, it is therefore advisable when preparing a horse for sale to align oneself to the needs of this customer segment in order to ensure an effective and targeted marketing of horses.     

The Business of Urban Animals Survey: The facts and statistics on companion animals in Canada

At the first Banff Summit for Urban Animal Strategies (BSUAS) in 2006, delegates clearly indicated that a lack of reliable Canadian statistics hampers municipal leaders and legislators in their efforts to develop urban animal strategies that create and sustain a healthy community for pets and people. To gain a better understanding of the situation, BSUAS municipal delegates and other industry stakeholders partnered with Ipsos Reid, one of the world’s leading polling firms, to conduct a national survey on the “Business of Urban Animals.” The results of the survey, summarized in this article, were presented at the BSUAS meeting in October 2008. In addition, each participating community will receive a comprehensive written analysis, as well as a customized report. The online survey was conducted from September 22 to October 1, 2008. There were 7208 participants, including 3973 pet and 3235 non-pet owners from the Ipsos-Reid’s proprietary Canadian online panel. The national results were weighted to reflect the true population distribution across Canada and the panel was balanced on all major demographics to mirror Statistics Canada census information. The margin for error for the national results is 1/− 1.15%.     

Diagnostic orientation values for ACTH and other parameters for clinically healthy donkeys and mules (insulin,triglycerides, glucose,fructosamines, and ɣ-GT)

Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction is the most prevalent endocrine disease in horses. Although donkeys and mules may also be affected, only a few data have been published. Reference values for diagnostic parameters, such as adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), are especially scarce or even lacking. Therefore, in the present study, available data from the literature have been verified and completed to facilitate a reliable diagnosis. Clinical inspections and haematological and biochemical examinations were carried out four times in a three-month interval (February to November) in 44 donkeys and 31 mules. Data from clinically healthy animals were used as an orientation. Plasma ACTH concentrations showed seasonal changes in both animal groups. However, it was generally higher in donkeys than mules. Although blood glucose (EDTA plasma) showed no difference between groups, serum insulin concentrations were consistently higher in donkeys. Serum fructosamine levels were slightly higher in mules, whereas, in some cases, serum triglyceride levels were considerably higher in donkeys. Serum gamma-glutamyltransferase showed a striking peak in mules in August, whereas the remaining gamma-glutamyltransferase values were lower compared to donkeys. By comparing donkeys and mules, the present work reveals differences in various blood parameters which should be considered for diagnoses and future studies.