Noninvasive reproductive monitoring in the okapi (Okapia johnstoni).

Fecal progestagen analysis in okapis (Okapia johnstoni) was used for diagnosis of pregnancy and reproductive disorders, including a comparison of urinary and fecal progestagen analysis and endocrine data on the postpartum period. Data were generated on reliability of fecal progestagen analysis in early pregnancy diagnosis, and case reports were compiled involving single animals with missing luteal activity, abortion after twin pregnancy, and abortions due to deficient placental progestagen production. There was approximately 100-200-fold higher progestagen concentration in feces than in urine, thus explaining the high reliability of fecal progestagen evaluations in diagnosing luteal function and pregnancy. The postpartum period was characterized by lactational anestrus of several months duration, and a postpartum estrous cycle about 2-3 wk after parturition was observed in two of eight animals. An animal with five abortions due to deficient placental progestagen production was treated with altrenogest in a subsequent pregnancy and carried the fetus to term.     

Investigation of aural bacterial and fungal flora following otitis in captive okapi (Okapia johnstoni)

Ten cases of otitis in nine captive okapi were observed at a captive zoological institution. Duration of clinical signs ranged from 3 days to 7 months. Two individuals each had a recurrence. A variety of fungi and bacteria were isolated from the aural canals of healthy okapi and their environments. Numerous different bacterial and fungal pathogens were cultured. Surveys investigating the occurrence of ear disease and related environmental factors from 15 other institutions that house okapi revealed otitis was only seen at one institution. While it appears that many bacterial and fungal pathogens are found in the okapi ear canal, it is suspected that environmental conditions, such as fungal load, air and hay quality, humidity, and temperature may be predisposing factors leading to ear infections in this species.     

Changes in the milk composition of okapi (Okapia johnstoni) during the first 6 months of lactation

We collected 17 milk samples at 1 day to 6 months post partum from one captive okapi (Okapia johnstoni). Milks were examined for nutrient composition, including water, fat, crude protein, carbohydrates, ash and five minerals. The average values of the concentrations were 79.2 ± 3.0% SD water, 8.5 ± 3.4% fat, 7.5 ± 1.1% crude protein, 3.6 ± 0.6% carbohydrate, 1.2 ± 0.1% ash, 263.7 ± 47.3 mg/100 g calcium, 183.0 ± 40.0 mg/100 g phosphorus, 95.2 ± 17.6 mg/100 g sodium, 74.4 ± 34.3 mg/100 g potassium and 28.4 ± 4.4 mg/100 g magnesium, respectively. The protein concentration increased at late lactation (P < 0.01). The contents of sodium and potassium were rather high in the early lactation period, while those of calcium and phosphorus were rather low in the early lactation period. During the course of lactation in the first week post partum and the protein concentration was high at 1 day post partum. We compare our findings with the American Association of Zoos & Aquariums's Okapi Species Survival Plan Hand‐rearing Protocol, and recommend that nutrient composition of the formula for okapi calves is developed using the present study as a guide.     

Analysis of glycosuria in okapi (Okapia johnstoni): Examination of urinary N‐acetyl‐β‐D‐glucosaminidase

We analyzed the urinary excretion of glucose and N‐acetyl‐β‐D‐glucosaminidase (NAG) in six okapis (Okapia johnstoni) in captivity to investigate the cause of their urinary sugar excretion. The urinary glucose‐positive okapi had significantly higher urinary NAG indices than the urinary glucose‐negative okapi. There was also a positive correlation between urinary glucose levels and urinary NAG indices. These results suggest that the proximal tubular function of the glycosuric okapi may have been obstructed, which impaired glucose reabsorption.     

Fecal progestagens to detect and monitor pregnancy in captive female cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)

The purposes of the present study were to establish a noninvasive monitoring assay of fecal progestagen measurement to detect pregnancy and to identify the components of fecal progestagens in early, middle and late pregnancy in cheetahs. Feces were collected from 7 female cheetahs and analyzed from 30 days before the last copulation to parturition in 9 pregnancies. Blood was collected from one cheetah. Fecal progestagen and serum progesterone concentrations were determined by enzyme immunoassay (EIA). The profiles of the fecal progestagen concentrations were similar to the serum progesterone profile. Fecal progestagen and serum progesterone concentrations remained at the baseline until copulation. In the mean fecal progestagen profile during pregnancy (92.8 ± 0.4 days; from the last copulation to parturition), the concentrations increased 3-4 days after the last copulation and remained high until parturition. To investigate changes in the components of progestagen metabolites in the tripartite periods of gestation, fecal progestagens were analyzed by HPLC-EIA. Marked immunoreactive peaks consistent with 5α-pregnan-3α/β-ol-20-one and 5α-pregnan-3,20-dione and small peaks consistent with 5β-pregnan-3α/β-ol-20-one were detected. There were no distinct difference in the components of progestagens among the first, second and third trimesters of pregnancy. The hormone assay, as an indicator of fecal 5α-reduced pregnanes, is useful for detecting pregnancy and monitoring pregnant luteal activity in cheetahs.     

Myometrial electrical activity during pregnancy and parturition in the pygmy goat

To quantify the pattern of myometrial activity during gestation and parturition, one bipolar electrode was implanted on each uterine horn of four bilaterally pregnant pygmy goats between days 102 and 120 of gestation. After a recovery period, electromyographic recordings were made for at least six hours per day and continuously when parturition was judged to be imminent. During late gestation myometrial activity occurred as discrete episodes of myometrial electrical activity (EMEA) with a mean duration ranging from 6.2 +/- 2.07 to 8.3 +/- 1.60 minutes. The mean interval between two successive EMEAs ranged from 45.8 +/- 19.95 to 74.7 +/- 42.27 minutes. In three of the four goats these characteristics were not significantly different from the two uterine horns. Parturition was preceded by a prolonged period (eight to 12 hours) of myometrial quiescence. It was only from 19 to 15 hours before expulsion of the first kid that total duration of EMG activity increased. This finally resulted in the regular occurrence of bursts which occupied 25 to 30 per cent of the recording time. The results demonstrate that, as in the sheep, cow and pig, the myometrium is active during late pregnancy. It is postulated that luteolysis coincides with the prolonged period of myometrial quiescence which precedes the onset of the parturient pattern of uterine activity.     

Mechanical properties of the ovine cervix during pregnancy, labour and immediately after parturition

The stretch modulus (stress/strain) of strips of ovine cervical tissue in vitro was measured at different stages of gestation. A decrease in stretch modulus implies softening of the tissue. There was a gradual but progressive reduction in the stretch modulus with advancing pregnancy between 30 and 140 days gestation with a marked increase between 140 days gestation and the onset of labour (P less than 0.005). After the first trimester, the uterine end of the cervix was usually more distensible than the vaginal end. No further reduction in the stretch modulus of the cervix occurred between labour and delivery of the fetus. The results of this study suggest that while there is some softening of the ovine cervix during pregnancy, most of the softening takes place immediately prior to the onset of labour and delivery of the fetus.     

Change of diurnal heart rate patterns during pregnancy and lactation in dogs (Canis familiaris)

Pregnancy and lactation involve great demands on the cardiovascular system. The purpose of this study was to investigate how the heart rate and diurnal heart rate pattern change when dogs become pregnant or lactate. Five clinically healthy female beagle dogs were mated, and delivered three to seven healthy puppies. The heart rate was investigated with 24-h ECG (Holter) once during anoestrus, at 3, 5, 7 and 9 weeks of pregnancy, and at week 4 postpartum (lactation). However, at 9 weeks, the ECG could not be recorded for the fully 24 h in 4 of 5 dogs, because labour started and the dogs then appeared disturbed by the recordings. The results at this date are not included in the statistical comparison. The heart rate increased progressively during pregnancy and was still elevated at 4 weeks of lactation. During late pregnancy the difference in heart rates between daytime and nighttime became smaller, but the heart rate was significantly higher in daytime in all periods. In conclusion, the increased heart rates during pregnancy and lactation reflect increased demands on the cardiovascular system and may be important to consider in clinical practice.     

Serum lipid profile in Iranian fat-tailed sheep in late pregnancy, at parturition and during the post-parturition period

Blood samples were obtained from 12 Iranian fat-tailed sheep during 7 weeks pre-partum, at parturition and 7 weeks post-partum. The lipids measured were cholesterol, triglyceride, total lipid, high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol, and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)-cholesterol. The concentrations of cholesterol, triglyceride, HDL-cholesterol and VLDL-cholesterol during the 7 weeks pre-partum, at parturition and the 7 weeks post-partum were significantly different (P < 0.05). One week before parturition, the concentrations of cholesterol, triglyceride, HDL-cholesterol and VLDL-cholesterol were higher (P < 0.05) than at other periods. The lowest concentrations of these parameters were observed 2-3 weeks after parturition. In this study, significant positive correlations were observed between the time of sampling (pre-partum, parturition and post-partum) and serum cholesterol (r = 0.22; P < 0.01) and HDL-cholesterol (r = 0.25; P < 0.01).     

Salmonella in captive crocodiles (Crocodylus johnstoni and C. porosus)

The prevalence of salmonellas in captive Crocodylus porosus and C. johnstoni was investigated at 2 Northern Territory crocodile farms. Similar proportions of each species at one farm (20.0 and 27.8% for C. porosus and C. johnstoni, respectively) carried salmonellas, but at the other farm there was a significant difference between the 2 species (81.0 and 5.0%, respectively). Procedures for the slaughter of crocodiles and processing of crocodile flesh for human consumption are outlined and discussed from the viewpoint of minimising salmonella contamination. The prevalence of salmonellas on flesh for human consumption (16.0% of carcases) was higher than that reported for beef and mutton, but lower than that for poultry products (Murrell 1986). Serotypes most often isolated from cloacai and faecal swabs were S. cerro, S. singapore, S. enteritidis and S. arizonae. Of the 10 serotypes isolated from processed carcases, S. singapore was most frequently isolated (33.3% of serotypes identified).     

Changes in fetal and maternal blood at the end of pregnancy and during parturition in the pig

Fetal and maternal blood gas tensions, pH, packed cell volume and glucose, fructose and lactic acid concentrations were monitored during the last two days of gestation, during parturition and and the first hour after birth. Blood samples were taken by means of indwelling catheters (implanted seven to 14 days before parturition) from 12 fetuses in seven sows. All fetuses were liveborn at a mean gestational age of 113.1 days. The significant finding was that all variables in fetal blood were stable during labour and, although mild hypercapnia was present during the last three hours, no significant changes in mean values were seen until those of samples taken within 15 minutes of birth. In some fetuses, no changes were seen until after birth, while in others pH and pO2 values declined during the last hour of fetal life. Immediately after birth a rapid increase in pO2 and decrease in pCO2 followed the onset of respiration. Blood pH fell during the first 30 minutes after birth and this fall was accompanied by increasing blood lactic acid concentrations. Blood glucose concentrations rose rapidly in the first 15 minutes after birth and were maintained during the first hour despite separation of the piglets from the sow. There was a transient, but significant, increase in packed cell volume during the period from 15 minutes before to 15 minutes after birth. Maternal values for all variables measured remained virtually unchanged during delivery.