Effects of agrochemical residues on four spider taxa: Laboratory methods for pesticide tests with web-building spiders

The susceptibility of web-building and hunting spiders from the tropics (Panama), Europe (F.R. of Germany) and the Middle East (Israel) to 30 pesticides (16 insecticides, 4 acaricides, 1 herbicide, 9 fungicides) was determined. Laboratory test methods for juvenile and adult web-building spiders are described.Philodromus sp. (hunting spider), was completely resistant to all substances;Argiope sp. (web-building spider),Linyphia sp. (web-building spider) andChiracanthium sp. (hunting spider) showed medium to high susceptibility. Insecticides affected spiders in a wide range of responses: from no mortality (most compounds of biological origin) and medium mortality (pyrethrin compounds, organophosphorus and carbamate compounds), to high mortality (cyclo compounds). To both groups of spiders (the hunting and web-building), most acaricides were highly toxic, whereas herbicides and fungicides were nontoxic.     

Can agrobiont spiders (Araneae) avoid a surface with pesticide residues?

Integrated pest management includes the use of various pesticides that can have a detrimental effect on spiders. A pesticide can express its activity directly or via residues. Most of the attention paid to the impact of pesticides on spiders has investigated the effects of direct exposure. Our aim in this study was to investigate the residual activity (repellency and toxicity) of selected pesticides on six principal species of spider occurring in an apple orchard. Four of these species (Clubiona spp., Pardosa spp., Philodromus spp., Xysticus spp.) are hunting spiders, and two species (Dictyna spp., Theridion spp.) are web-building. We were interested to see whether these spiders could avoid a surface with residues and to examine their susceptibilities to fresh and 1-day-old residues. For this purpose we conducted laboratory experiments using three types of pesticide, an organophosphate, phosalone (Zolone), a pyrethroid, permethrin (Ambush) and Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt; Novodor), which were applied to paper discs or branches. Spiders could choose to stay on any treated paper/branch within a dish. Except for Theridion spp., all species were repelled by fresh residues but not by 1-day-old residues. Clubiona spp., Dictyna spp., Pardosa spp. and Xysticus spp were repelled by phosalone and permethrin residues only, whereas Philodromus spp. specimens were repelled also by Bt residues. Theridion spp. avoided contact with residues by making a web on any available branch. Regarding toxicity, neither fresh nor 1-day-old residues of phosalone or Bt caused significant mortality to any spider species. In contrast, both fresh and 1-day-old residues of permethrin caused significant mortality to all species except for Theridion spp. In conclusion, spiders can recognise and avoid only fresh residues, although older residues might still be toxic to them.     

农药学研究的重要手段——放射性同位素示踪技术

化学农药的不合理使用造成了严重的影响问题和食品污染，影响生态平衡，危害人类健康，利用核技术优势研究和解决农药学问题受到人们越来越多的关注，在过去的几年里，放射性同位素示踪技术及其在我国农药科学中应用研究已取得了较大成就，特别是在放射性同位素化学示记合成技术，利用示踪手段研究在动植物体中的农药残留，降解和代谢，在环境中的行为和归宿，以及农药完全使用技术等方面均在较大进展仅中国农业科学院原子能利用天空     

Effects of pesticide residues on ground-dwelling lycosid and micryphantid spiders in laboratory tests

The effects of residues of three commercial pesticides in common use in Europe against cereal pests, on two dominant spider species, a lycosid and a micryphantid, were evaluated in the laboratory. Insecticide assay methods for juvenile and adult hunting and adult web-building, ground-dwelling spiders are described. Results varied with different sprayed substrates and species. Fenvalerate was more toxic than other pesticides and had a longer residual effect on all spiders when tested on moistened sand than on filter paper. Endosulfan was of high initial toxicity on sand, but was more toxic on filter paper to both adults and juveniles ofPardosa spp. Pyrazophos was non-toxic to the spiders tested, regardless of substrate. In general, the lycosids were more affected by pesticides than web-building spiders because of their different life strategies. A sprayed sand substrate matched field conditions better as a method to test the effects of pesticides on ground-dwelling spiders.     

Effect of pesticides on spiders occurring on apple and citrus in Israel

Field experiments in an apple orchard and in a citrus grove were carried out to evaluate the effect of four commercial pesticides in common use in Israel against apple and citrus pests, on the spider populations inhabiting the trees. The spider populations on apple were markedly suppressed by the pesticides, the order of toxicity being Talstar (biphenate) >Mavrik (fluvalinate) > Smash (fenpropathrin) > Dursban (chlorpyrifos). When grapefruit trees were treated with carbaryl + formothion, 232 spiders were sampled in the unsprayed plot, 55 days after treatment, as compared with only 11 spiders in the treated plot. Two and 7 days after treatment with chlorobenzilate, the sample from the treated plot numbered 68 and 55 spiders, respectively, as compared with 50 spiders collected 24 h before treatment. In addition, laboratory tests were carried out to determine the susceptibility of the spiderChiracanthium mildei L. Koch to 17 pesticides. When the spiders were exposed to grapefruit leaves which had been dipped 1 h previously for 5 sec in the aqueous emulsions of the pesticides, chlorpyrifos, fenpropathrin, fenvalerate, phosphamidon and biphenate caused 100%, and cypermethrin and fluvalinate 60% mortality, whereas all the other pesticides tested - acaricides, fungicides and herbicides - caused about 10-40% mortality.     

Susceptibility of the spider Theridion impressum to 17 pesticides

Susceptibility of immature individuals of the spider Theridion impressum to 17 pesticides (6 insecticides, 4 acaricides, 4 fungicides and 3 herbicides) was tested in the laboratory. The pesticides were applied at recommended rates in a Potter tower. Mortality was evaluated for 4 subsequent days. Broad-spectrum insecticides, cypermethrin+chlorpyrofos (Nurelle), -cypermethrin (Vaztak), and deltamethrin (Decis), were toxic to spiders. Selective insecticides, pirimicarb (Pirimor), Bacillus thuringiensis (Novodor), and triazamate (Aztec), were harmless. All tested acaricides, pirimiphos-methyl (Actellic), flufenoxuron (Cascade), -fluvalinate+thiometon (Mavrik), and bifenthrin (Talstar) showed high toxicity. Of the fungicides, dithianon (Delan), benomyl (Fundazol), iprodione (Rovral), and dodine (Syllit), only dithianon was slightly harmful, while the remaining fungicides were harmful. All herbicides, metazachlor (Butisan), clomazone (Command), and clopyralid (Lontrel), were harmless to T. impressum. Three selective insecticides, 3 fungicides and 3 herbicides are recommended for use in plant protection.     

Foraging mode: a factor affecting the susceptibility of spiders (Araneae) to insecticide applications

Field experiments have revealed that some species of spiders are more sensitive to insecticides than others. Among many factors influencing their susceptibility, foraging mode seems to play an important role. Aspects of foraging mode that appear to be relevant are whether the spider is diurnal or nocturnal, a hunter or a web-maker. Six spider species, Araniella opisthographa, Clubiona neglecta, Dictyna uncinata, Pardosa agrestis, Philodromus cespitum and Theridion impressum were used in the study. P agrestis and P cespitum are diurnal hunters that may come into direct contact with insecticide. C neglecta is nocturnal and so is exposed to residues only. The remaining three species are web-makers building webs that vary in the extent to which they can protect the spider from direct spray. The effect of sprays was tested under laboratory conditions (Potter tower) with three commercial insecticides, an insect growth regulator (hexaflumuron), a selective organophosphorus (phosalone) and a non-selective pyrethroid insecticide (permethrin) using a four-day exposure period. Data were analysed using bootstrap method and randomization tests. The results obtained showed that hunting spiders were more susceptible to the insecticides tested than web-makers (in their webs). Diurnal hunting spiders (Philodromus and Pardosa) were severely affected only by permethrin. A high mortality was observed for the nocturnal hunter, Clubiona, after application of phosalone and permethrin. This species appears to be very sensitive to residues of both insecticides. Comparing the effect on web-making spiders, with and without webs, it was observed that the sparse orb-web of Araniella did not protect its owner at all, but the dense cribellate and frame-webs of Dictyna and Theridion, respectively, reduced the mortality caused by permethrin significantly in comparison with specimens without webs. Of other factors studied, posture (normal and upside-down position) did not influence the susceptibility. Mortality increased slightly with body size after permethrin application. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry     

九种农药对稻田蜘蛛的影响及其对飞虱的防治效果

为保护稻田蜘蛛,高效防治飞虱,对9种农药进行了试验。结果表明：药后2 d,阿维菌素高剂量（750 ml/hm2）和低剂量（375 ml/hm2）处理均对稻田蜘蛛的杀伤力大,处理区蜘蛛比对照区减少89%;药后7 d,阿维菌素2种剂量处理和毒死蜱高剂量处理对稻田蜘蛛的杀伤力大,处理区蜘蛛均比对照区减少58.8%以上;药后13 d,阿维菌素2种剂量处理和氯氰菊酯处理对稻田蜘蛛的杀伤力大,处理区蜘蛛均比对照区减少57.6%以上;药后28 d,农药对稻田蜘蛛的杀伤力不明显。药后2 d,毒死蜱高剂量处理区对飞虱的防效最好,达87.9%;药后7d、13d、28d,吡蚜酮处理区对飞虱的防效最高,分别达89.7%、90.8%、72.4%。综合表明：吡蚜酮为稻田防治飞虱最优品种,不但防效高,而且对蜘蛛安全。     

The relevance of sublethal effects in honey bee testing for pesticide risk assessment

The option of an evaluation and assessment of possible sublethal effects of pesticides on bees has been a subject of discussion by scientists and regulatory authorities. Effects considered included learning behaviour and orientation capacity. This discussion was enhanced by the French bee issue and allegations against systemic insecticides that were linked to the hypothesis that sublethal intoxication might even have led to reported colony losses. This paper considers whether and, if so, how sublethal effects should be incorporated into risk assessment, by addressing a number of questions: What is meant by a sublethal effect? Which sublethal effects should be measured, when and how? How are sublethal effects to be included in risk assessments? The authors conclude that sublethal studies may be helpful as an optional test to address particular, compound‐specific concerns, as a lower‐tier alternative to semi‐field or field testing, if the effects are shown to be ecologically relevant. However, available higher‐tier data (semi‐field, field tests) should make any additional sublethal testing unnecessary, and higher‐tier data should always override data of lower‐tier trials on sublethal effects. © Crown copyright 2007. Reproduced with the permission of Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effect of pest management systems on foliage- and grass-dwelling spider communities in an apple orchard in Hungary

Spider communities (Araneae) inhabiting the canopy, the herbaceous layer and the borders, as well as the populations overwintering on the tree trunks of different aged IPM and conventional apple orchards were investigated in Hungary. Abundance and species richness of entire spider communities in IPM plots were significantly higher than in conventional plots, probably owing to the lower toxicity of pesticides used and higher prey densities. In the case of abundance, similar tendencies were observed in web-building and hunting spider guilds. Age of plantations can significantly influence spider density in the canopy, acting through the prey density. In young plantations, where size of the canopy was smaller and density of the pear lace bug (Stephanitis pyri L.) higher, significantly higher numbers of hunting spider communities were present than in old plantations which had been similarly treated. This relationship was not observed for web-building spiders. Diversity of canopy-inhabiting spider communities was higher in old plots, regardless of the treatments. The effect of the border of the orchard on spider communities was investigated and it was found that when selective insecticides were used, migration of spiders into orchards was increased significantly. When broad-spectrum insecticides were applied, spider densities in the canopy did not differ between outer and inner rows of the orchards. The effect of the treatments and orchard age, both on abundance and species richness of overwintering spider communities on the trunk, showed the same result as for canopy spiders, namely significantly larger spider communities were found in IPM plots and in the young plantation than in conventionally-treated plots and in the old plantation. Broad-spectrum insecticides reduced abundance and species richness of spider communities in the herbaceous layer of the conventionally-treated plot. At the same time, the spider communities of the herbaceous layer of the IPM plot did not differ significantly from adjacent herbaceous plants. A significant overlap exists between spider communities of the canopy and herbaceous layer. Despite chemical treatments, migration from the herbaceous layer into the canopy occurs. The effects of chemical treatments on the dominant species are discussed. There were no significant differences between the differently treated plots in abundance of one of the dominant species Oxyopes heterophthalmus Latreille. However, the other dominant species, Cheiracanthium mildei L. Koch, was more abundant in the IPM plots.     

化学防治对皖南烟区蜘蛛群落多样性的影响

为探究化学防治对皖南烟区烟叶上蜘蛛群落多样性的影响, 于2021年4月至7月采用目测法和拍打振落法对未进行化学防治田(抑芽剂)和化学防治田(抑芽剂和化学农药)烟叶上的蜘蛛进行了调查?共记录鉴定未化学防治田蜘蛛(12科40种943头)和化学防治田蜘蛛(11科32种693头)的数量为1 636头, 分属于13科44种?蜘蛛的卵囊附着在烟叶的叶尖和叶缘, 6月下旬达到峰值?烟田蜘蛛群落的时间动态和多样性指数变化说明, 未化学防治田和化学防治田蜘蛛的个体数量均在5月中旬达到最大, 但丰富度呈现一定的波动, 多样性指数和均匀度指数在6月底到7月初达到最大, 但优势集中性指数在这期间最小?两种类型的烟田中草间钻头蛛Hylyphantes graminicola和食虫沟瘤蛛Ummeliata insecticeps均为优势种?通过对两烟田蜘蛛群落多样性的比较, 结果表明, 未化学防治田比化学防治田的蜘蛛群落更具有稳定性, 且化学防治对烟田蜘蛛的个体数量影响显著?本文对了解烟田蜘蛛群落生态系统以及烟田的绿色防控奠定理论基础?     

浙江省山地茶园蜘蛛研究初报

1979～1990年,调查了浙江省13个县(市)山地茶园蜘蛛资源,并在松阳县进行定点系统调查,共发现茶园蜘蛛24科110种;其种群数量大,占捕食性天敌的93.66％。优势种群有叉线金蝉蛛、前齿肖峭、突腹蛛一种、大井盖蛛、盖蛛一种、管巢蛛。室内饲养观察蜘蛛主要捕食假眼小绿叶蝉、黑刺粉虱、茶蚜,也捕食茶绿盲蝽以及尺蠖和卷蛾的幼虫。3种常见蜘蛛又线金蝉蛛、粽管巢蛛、毁坏管巢蛛对假眼小绿叶蝉的日捕食达8.5～11.0头,对害虫的控制能力居茶园捕食性天敌的首位,影响茶园蜘蛛种群消长的主要因子有:害虫种群变化、农药施用、农事操作及气候因子等。     

Field and laboratory experiments on the response and development of resistance to pesticides and population density ofTetranychus cinnabarinus in ISRAEL

Dosage mortality data for 12 pesticides were determined with females of an insecticide-susceptible strain of the carmine spider mite,Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisd.), by the slide dip method; for four of the pesticides which are specific acaricides, also the Munger cell method was used. The LC₅₀s ranged from 0.00078% to 0.041%, with the synthetic pyrethroids being more toxic than the specific acaricides. There were no differences in results between the two assay methods. Four synthetic pyrethroids that were very active againstT. cinnabarinus in laboratory tests were examined in an unsprayed apple orchard for their effect on the population density of spider mites. An upsurge of tetranychid mites was noted 4 weeks after a single application     

Latest generation of halogen‐containing pesticides

Agriculture is confronted with enormous challenges, from production of enough high‐quality food to water use, environmental impacts and issues combined with a continually growing world population. Modern agricultural chemistry has to support farmers by providing innovative agrichemicals, used in applied agriculture. In this context, the introduction of halogen atoms into an active ingredient is still an important tool to modulate the properties of new crop protection compounds. Since 2010, around 96% of the launched products (herbicides, fungicides, insecticides/acaricides and nematicides) contain halogen atoms. The launched nematicides contain the largest number of halogen atoms, followed by insecticides/acaricides, herbicides and fungicides. In this context, fungicides and herbicides contain in most cases fluorine atoms, whereas nematicides and insecticides contain in most cases ‘mixed’ halogen atoms, for example chlorine and fluorine. This review gives an overview of the latest generation of halogen‐containing pesticides launched over the past 6 years and describes current halogen‐containing development candidates. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry     

微生物农药在俄罗斯的应用进展

微生物农药因其副作用小、对环境兼容性好而日益成为全球农药发展的一种趋势和方向。本文以细菌杀虫剂、真菌杀虫剂、病毒杀虫剂、微生物除草剂、植物生长调节剂、农用抗生素作为微生物农药的代表,介绍了微生物农药的研究、应用现状及其在俄罗斯的研究进展,并对我国与俄罗斯在微生物农药领域的合作进行了展望。     

Rate of volatilisation of pesticides from soil surfaces; comparison of calculated results with those determined in a laboratory model system

A laboratory model system for the determination of the volatility of non-ionic pesticides from soil surfaces is presented. The pesticides examined were the insecticides methidathion, diazinon, and isazophos, the herbicide metolachlor, and the fungicide metalaxyl. The rates of volatilisation of these compounds from soil increased with increasing pesticide concentration, temperature and air flow rate and with decreasing soil organic matter content. The volatilities of the same pesticides were also calculated by using their vapour pressure, water solubility and soil adsorption data. The excellent correlation between calculated and experimental results showed that information on the volatility of a chemical can be obtained simply by calculation. Such calculations allow the classification of each pesticide according to its volatility, and therefore represent a useful alternative for volatility studies in laboratory model systems.     

药剂诱导稻飞虱再猖獗及科学用药

稻飞虱是典型的再猖獗型重大害虫。害虫再猖獗包括生态再猖獗和生理再猖獗,前者主要由药剂杀伤天敌使天敌功能崩溃引起,后者指药剂刺激害虫生殖导致害虫增殖倍数显著增加。刺激稻飞虱生殖的药剂包括大部分有机磷、菊酯类、氨基甲酸酯类杀虫剂,及一些除草剂和杀菌剂(如井冈霉素、多菌灵)等。通过蛋白质组学、转录组学、基因表达谱分析及基因沉默试验证实化学药剂刺激稻飞虱生殖主要涉及与生殖和代谢相关基因的上调表达,但同一药剂对稻飞虱组团物种产生物种间基因功能生态位分离。这就需要在深入理解化学农药对生态系统中组团物种的正负效应和生殖影响的基础上进行精准用药技术设计。本文综述了一些农药对稻田害虫天敌行为、生殖、捕食功能及稻飞虱生殖影响的机理,并基于同种药剂对稻飞虱组团内不同物种生殖的相反效应,提出稻飞虱多物种共存时的科学用药技术。     

Pesticide Use and Mycotoxin Production in Fusarium and Aspergillus Phytopathogens

The major mycotoxigenic species of Fusarium and Aspergillus phytopathogens have been identified in this review. Since fungicides are widely used to control crop diseases caused by these fungi, it is pertinent to assess efficacy with respect to mycotoxin production. In both laboratory studies with pure cultures of phytopathogens and field trials with crop plants, the overall evidence concerning the effectiveness of fungicides is contradictory and in certain cases somewhat unexpected. In particular, at sub-lethal doses of a number of fungicides including carbendazim, tridemorph, difenoconazole and tebuconazole with triadimenol, mycotoxin production from Fusarium phytopathogens may increase. Furthermore, the efficacy of propiconazole and thiabendazole in the control of deoxynivalenol production from F. graminearum is not consistent. Evidence has been presented to suggest, for the first time, that fungicide-resistance in F. culmorum may be accompanied by a more persistent pattern of mycotoxin production. The limited evidence on the effects of fungicides on mycotoxin production in Aspergillus species is also conflicting. Under laboratory conditions, miconazole and fenpropimorph have been shown to increase aflatoxin production from A. parasiticus. Moreover, fenpropimorph increased production of the more toxic aflatoxin B1. Since fungal infection of plant products is often preceded by insect damage, there is interest in the effectiveness of insecticides to reduce infestation, infection and mycotoxin contamination. Additionally, insecticides may be effective in their own right, causing a direct effect on mycotoxin synthesis. The bulk of the evidence relates to effects on aflatoxin (AF) components B1, B2, G1 and G2. Under laboratory conditions, AFB1 production was most resistant to inhibition by insecticides, followed by AFG1, AFG2 and AFB2. This pattern of inhibition was particularly consistent for the organophosphorus insecticides. In one field study, Bux and carbaryl were considerably more effective than naled in reducing AFB1 contamination of maize kernels. It is concluded that if pesticide control is to be more effective in the future, additional criteria may be required in developing evaluation protocols for candidate compounds. In particular, the issue of fungicide-resistance in relation to mycotoxin production needs to be addressed in a concerted programme of research. Additionally, the potential of breeding and selecting cultivars resistant to disease caused by toxigenic fungi needs to be exploited in a parallel search for an environmentally acceptable solution to the question of mycotoxin contamination of plant products.     

Acceptability of pesticide impacts on the environment: what do United Kingdom stakeholders and the public value?

EU Directive 91/414/EEC requires there to be no unacceptable effects on the environment from the use of pesticides. This paper reports the views of direct stakeholder groups and results from an opinion survey of more than 2000 members of the general public on what in practice should constitute acceptable and unacceptable effects of pesticides. Stakeholders in focus groups were concerned with the potential effects of pesticides on animal and plant population viability and micro-organism function but recognized that a trade-off exists between the potential economic advantages of responsible pesticide use and the potential disadvantages of individual poisoning events. The public opinion survey showed that although pesticides are widely used in homes and gardens, their use on farm crops remains of concern to the public. Concerns are greatest on issues of human health and food quality but potential environmental effects are also an issue for a substantial number of people, particularly if attractive species could be affected.     

棉叶螨的抗药性现状与治理策略

棉叶螨也称为棉红蜘蛛,属蛛形纲叶螨科,其种类繁多,分布范围广,世代周期短,是为害棉花的一类重要害螨。目前,用于防治棉叶螨的化学药剂主要是神经毒剂及呼吸抑制剂2大类,且棉叶螨对多数药剂产生了不同程度的抗性,以二斑叶螨Tetranychus urticae为首的植食性害螨已成为世界上抗药性最严重的节肢动物之一。美国路易斯安那州棉田二斑叶螨种群对阿维菌素产生了1 415倍抗性,而国内棉花上棉叶螨主要对有机磷类药剂产生了较强抗性,最高为467倍。棉叶螨产生抗药性的机制主要涉及靶标突变及解毒代谢增强,其中靶标突变主要涉及乙酰胆碱酯酶、电压门控钠离子通道和谷氨酸门控氯离子通道等;细胞色素P450单加氧酶、羧酸酯酶和谷胱甘肽S-转移酶等一种或多种解毒酶共同参与害螨对化学药剂的解毒代谢。该文主要从棉叶螨的种类及分布、用于防治棉叶螨的化学药剂、棉叶螨的抗药性现状、抗药性机制解析和抗药性治理策略5个方面进行阐述,提出因地制宜的抗药性治理策略,旨在为棉叶螨的田间防治提供指导。