What rights and benefits? The implementation of participatory forest management in Kenya: The case of Eastern Mau Forest Reserve

The study espoused the access analytical framework to investigate how introduction of Participatory Forest Management (PFM) in Kenya has changed the various actors’ ability to benefit from the forest resources of Eastern Mau Forest Reserve. Data collected through key informant interviews, and a household survey showed that implementation of PFM has triggered new income opportunities for forest adjacent communities in seedling production and beekeeping. However, PFM bestowed no real decision-making powers to the established Community Forest Associations (CFAs) over important forest resources such as timber and firewood. Members of the local communities and other actors have continued to access these resources through various structural and relational means, in the same way as before the introduction of PFM. Further, it is documented that PFM has introduced additional burdens on the local communities, especially the poorest households, as a result of increased enforcement of rules. Based on these findings, it is suggested that the PFM policy in Kenya, in its current form, is unlikely to realize its dual objectives of forest conservation and livelihood enhancement. To attain them would require a further devolution of rights to the CFAs.     

Socio-economic and ecological outcomes of community based forest management: A case study from Tobé-Kpobidon forest in Benin,Western Africa

Community forestry, promoted as a “win–win” forest management strategy yielded a variety of results that includes both failure and relative success. The willingness of government to hold control over forest resources while transferring only part of property rights to local communities is one of the major constraints. Therefore, there is a need to explore alternative approaches, which enhance the position and accountability of local communities in community forest management. This study evaluated socio-economic and ecological outcomes of community forestry in a context of important property rights conceded to local communities. The study was conducted using focus groups discussions, forest income evaluation and assessment of forest resources and their dynamics. Findings showed that institutional design with important property rights conceded to local communities partially empowered local communities and reduced threats while improving the condition of forest resources. The approach also yielded positive economic outcomes that enabled bordering populations to make up to 25% of their global annual income from the forest. However, the sustainability of this scheme of forest management was mostly limited by the financial dependency on local non-governmental organization, by local institutions and discrepancy in forest benefits sharing among local forest users.     

Forest governance and sustainability pathways in the absence of a comprehensive national forest policy — The case of New Zealand

A ‘pathways’ and ‘framings’ approach derived from Leach et al. (2010) is used to examine forest sustainability policy in New Zealand. The country has had no comprehensive forest policy since the 1990s and indeed no longer a forest service or its equivalent. Instead ‘forest’ preservation, policy, and monitoring functions are carried out by the Department of Conservation, Ministry of Primary Industry and Ministry of Environment. Exotic plantation forests have themselves been sold off to the private sector and some aspects of planting and harvesting are regulated by the Resource Management Act. Even in this Neo-Liberal setting, and similar to Leach et al.'s work in completely different contexts, policy responses have tended to be oriented towards ‘stability’ and ‘resilience’ types of forest sustainability. Three forest sustainability pathways are evident, directed towards preservation of indigenous biodiversity, economic development without adverse environmental impacts, and monitoring of environmental quality. In some ways the current ‘New Zealand forest governance model’ is an improvement on its predecessor but it seems unlikely to be mobile in a policy sense, resting as it does on the existence a relatively large area of indigenous forest and a large exotic plantation resource where the latter provides all timber needs.     

Forest product trade,wood consumption,and forest conservation—the case of 61 countries

Trade barriers of forest products are often advocated in the name of protecting forest resources. Whether the promoting of trade of forest products will increase or decrease the global forest resources is still a matter of debate. We offer an assessment of how forest product trade helps shape observed forest change, by relating wood consumption change to trade of forest products based on cross-section data from 61 countries in 2010. The result shows that wood outputs have positive effects on wood consumption. Compared to domestic production, the result suggests that imports of forest products can help reduce wood consumption. This may indicate that trade liberalization can promote the allocation efficiency of timber resources across the global, which can improve the utilization efficiency and reduce the wood consumption in the world to protect the global forest resources. It is suggested that the high-efficient harvest and wood-processing technological transfer should be advocated in the international community to contribute to global forest conservation.     

Indigenous management of tropical forest ecosystems: the case of the Kayapó indians of the Brazilian Amazon

The Kayapó Indians of Brazil's Amazon Basin are described as effective managers of tropical forest, utilizing an extensive inventory of useful native plants that are concentrated by human activity in special forest areas (resource islands, forest fields, forest openings, tuber gardens, agricultural plots, old fields, and trailsides). Long-term transplanting and selection of plants suggest semi-domestication of many species. The overall management strategies of forest also includes many manipulated animal species (birds, fish, bees, mammals) utilized as food and game. Forest patches (apêtê) are created by Indians from campo/cerrado using planting zones made from termite and ant nests mixed with mulch: formation and development of these is briefly discussed, including the implications for new ideas concerning reforestation and campo management. Finally an integrative cognitive model is presented showing the relationships between variants of forest and savanna recognized by the Kayapó. Indigenous knowledge of subtle similarities between conceptually distinct ecological units in the model allows for the interchange of botanical material between microclimates to increase biological diversity in managed areas. It is suggested that indigenous knowledge is extremely important in developing new strategies for forest and campo/cerrado conservation, while improving productiveness of these ecological systems. Such knowledge is not only applicable for Amazônian Indians, but also has far-reaching implications for human populations throughout the humid tropics.This is a preliminary survey of indigenous management strategies that is generated as a part of the Projeto Kayapó , an interdisciplinary ethnobiological research project funded by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development) and the World Wildlife Fund. I would like to thank Drs. Gerhard Gottsberger and Anthony Anderson for their assistance in collecting plants that are currently being identified to supply more complete data on Kayapó subsistence. I also wish to thank FUNAI (Fundaão Nacional do Índio) for their assistance and support, as well as FAB (Fora Aérea Brasileira) and VOTEC for providing some transportation to/from Gorotire, and the Unevangelized Field Missions for their assistance in providing communication and acquiring supplies.     

Effects of participatory forest management on livelihood capitals of the community in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

In Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, we surveyed 80 households to observe the effects of participatory forestry (PF) on the livelihood of local participants. We analyzed the effects on livelihood capitals to compare in two ways: (1) before and after participation, and (2) participants and non-participants. In Cox’s Bazar, there were some significant changes regarding income sources, but annual income was little changed after participation in participatory forestry. Literacy (about 10 % after participation) and mobile phone ownership (75 %) were significantly higher than before. Housing conditions were better (brick walls: 7.5 %; sun-grass roof: 70 %) than those of non-participants (brick walls: 0 %; sun-grass roof: 77.5 %). PF ensured legal rights on forest lands for participants, while non-participants were illegally living on public forestland. However, expenses were considerably higher than income; people were still struggling with poverty and many of them suffered from malnutrition. This ultimately put pressure on all capital. People had redistributed their available capital to cope with adversity, and there was a trend toward involvement in economic activities other than forests. Our study found that social capital was more influenced by PF more than other capitals. Due to the involvement with the PF program, people were feeling much more secure, women had elevated status, and social relationships became stronger.     

Analysis of forest landscape dynamics based on Forest Landscape Restoration: a case study of Yong’an city,Fujian province,China

Forest landscape restoration (FLR) is a process that aims to regain ecological integrity and enhance human well-being in deforested or degraded forest landscapes. To ensure that restoration efforts are successful, the first step is to understand the dynamics of the forest landscape and the dominant forces responsible for its change. Taking Yong’an city, Fujian province in China as a case for study, this paper constructed a Markov model to predict the dynamics of the forest landscape based on sample-plot data of Continuous Forest Inventory at a county level. The study area was divided into eight landscape element types based on FLR, including approximated primary forest, secondary broad-leaved forest, secondary forest of Pinus massoniana, natural bamboo forest, planted forest, non-timber product forest, degraded forest land and non-forestry land. The analysis showed the following: (1) the extent of reforestation of planted forest, non-timber product forest and secondary forest of Pinus massoniana would be greater than that of deforestation of approximated primary forest, broad-leaved secondary forest and natural bamboo forest. Therefore, the total area covered by forest would increase steadily. (2) Conversely, conversion among different landscape element types would occur frequently and have high transition proportions. (3) Remarkable decrease of the extent of approximated primary forest, together with the conversion from degraded forest land to secondary forest, would probably result in the decline of forest volume. (4) Forest productivity in the meantime will not be maintained or enhanced because of the conversion from secondary forest to planted forest. These results suggest that the direct and underlying driving force of landscape dynamics should be understood and addressed in the upcoming studies for remnant approximated primary forest protection, secondary forest management and degraded forest land rehabilitation. The conclusion is that the Markov model can be used to analyze the forest landscape dynamics for FLR based on sample-plot survey data of Continuous Forest Inventory at a county level.     

The relative importance of climatic gradient versus human disturbance in determining population structure of Afzelia africana in the Republic of Benin§

The study aimed to investigate the relative significance of effects of climatic variability and human disturbance on the population structure of the threatened species Afzelia africana Sm. ex Pers. in the Republic of Benin in West Africa. Forest inventory data such as regeneration density, tree diameter and total height were compiled from A. africana forest stands under different disturbance regimes in the three climatic zones of Benin. Multiple generalised linear models and non-linear diameter–height equations were fitted to contrast the individual effects of categorical variables, such as climatic zone and disturbance level. Results revealed significantly higher scaling coefficients in less drier regions and low-disturbance stands. The diameter–height relationship was more controlled by the climatic zone than by the disturbance level. Accordingly, the disturbance level contributed only to the intercept of the diameter–height model, whereas the climatic zone significantly influenced both intercept and slope. In addition, when climatic zone and disturbance level were considered as sources of variation in the diameter–height model, the former explained the greater marginal variance. It was concluded that climate has the greater effect on population structure of A. africana in natural stands.     

Restoration of degraded ecosystems in the Afromontane highlands of Ethiopia: comparison of plantations and natural regeneration§

The scale of deforestation in sub-Saharan Africa underscores the need for forest restoration. Information is scarce for evidence-based restoration options. Sown Senna didymobotrya, planted Ficus thonningii cuttings, sown S. didymobotrya and planted F. thonningii combined, and previously occurring native non-browse shrubs (NNS) were compared for their effect on selected plant nutrients and occurrence of Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata in north-west Ethiopia. The treatments were applied to experimental units established on previous grazing land. At the end of the fourth year, 60% of planted F. thonningii stakes survived. The leaf biomass production was encouraging. Senna didymobotrya attained close to 1 m height and crown width. Natural regeneration of O. europaea was observed only under previously occurring shrubs. Six previously occurring NNS species were identified. Soils immediately under these shrubs were richer in nutrients than between shrubs in the open spaces. Our results suggest that vegetative stakes and NNS could be promising tools for ecological restoration of decimated ecosystems in the highlands of Ethiopia. Management interventions, which aim at steering succession close to pre-disturbance forest community structure by facilitation, should be selective of the shrub species.     

Strategies on natural forest protection of collective forest area in minority nationality community in China─A case of the forest resource management in datu village

IntroductionForestisakindofmulti-function'resourcethatcanbesustaininglyutiIized,butsomeprobIems,suchasinsufficiencyoftimberyieId,soiIerosion,cIimateim-baIanceinpartdistrictetc.,oftenarousedbecauseofincorrectuseandmanagementofnaturalresources.InordertodevelopthefOrestry,IotsoffOrestrypoIi-cieshavebeenissuedandcarriedout.V8rioustypesofforestresourcesmanagementhavebeenaroused,especialIycollectiveforestareasinsouthChina.However,whydiff6rentefficiencies,good,badandworse,eventoresultinthedecrea…     

The introduction of modern forest management and clear-cutting in Sweden: Ridö State Forest 1832–2014

The effects of clear-cutting and potential alternatives continue to be hot topics during discussions of forestry and nature conservation. This study presents forest data from Ridön, an island in Lake Mälaren in central Sweden, where forest management and clear-cutting have been applied for almost 200 years. The main objective of the study was to identify changes in forest management and forest conditions over time. The forest transition in Sweden during the 1800s is also covered, and the importance of early forest experiments is discussed, exemplified by Ridön. This study is based on eight forest management plans and maps, from 1832 to 2014. Our results show a transformation from large, continuous areas of heterogeneous forest to small homogeneous stands. Clear-cutting has been the main logging method applied to Ridön for almost 200 years, which is in contrast with the general historical trend of selective cutting preceding clear-cutting in the Nordic countries. Our analysis shows that forestry has changed from the exploitation of resources to sustainable management. Currently, forest management at Ridön aims to create a nature reserve characterized by uneven-aged forest with an increased deciduous component. Hence, the intention is to obtain a forest similar to as it was in 1832. By analyzing spatially precise data on forest stands over long periods and in relation to contemporary silvicultural methods, it is possible to discern the impact of forest management, to understand the drivers of the long-term changes in managed forest, and it also allows for a more educated discussion on today’s forest management.     

Does postfire management affect the recovery of Mediterranean communities? The case study of terrestrial gastropods

In fire-prone regions, understanding the response of species to fire is a major goal in order to predict the effects on biodiversity. Furthermore, postfire management can also model this response through the manipulation of environmental characteristics of the burnt habitat. We have examined the taxonomic and functional response to fire and postfire management of a Mediterranean snail community affected by a summer fire in 2003. After the fire, the area was logged, leaving wood debris on the ground, and three alternative practices were implemented in several plots within the burnt area: subsoiling, removal of trunks having branches, total removal of trunks and branches, as well as one area not logged. Our results indicated that fire exerted a major impact on the snail community, strongly reducing diversity and species richness, particularly for forest species living in the humus and having European distribution ranges. By contrast, we found slight differences within the postfire practices, presumably because of the strong initial impact of fire and subsequent xerophilous postfire conditions. However, the area with only trunk removal showed a positive response of generalist snail species, probably due to moist microhabitats provided by the accumulation of wood debris on the ground. The effects of postfire management should be further explored due to the expected increase of fire risk associated with climate change and land-use histories.     

Incorporating agroforestry practices in the management of walnut plantations in Dauphiné, France: an analysis of farmers‘ motivations

The Dauphiné province in south-eastern France is a major area for walnut orchards. Growers manage their orchards with some specific agroforestry features: grafted walnut trees may be pruned to form a bottom log with a timber end use (dual purpose trees), and intercrops may be grown between the tree lines. These agroforestry practices are however only partially adopted. Three surveys were conducted in 1993, 1995 and 1996 to elicit the farmer motivations for adopting or rejecting agroforestry management features. The walnut industry is a key activity in two parts of Dauphiné: the Isère valley, and the Diois basin. The reasons for adoption of agroforestry practices are discussed. In the Isère valley, the priority is given to walnut production in specialised farms, and the extension services are opposed to agroforestry practices. In the dryer Diois area, the main explanations for agroforestry adoption were the welfare of the farmer family, the age of the farm manager, and the contribution of walnut production to the family income. Dual purpose management schemes were characterised by extended investment return delays, but proved to be the most rewarding schemes when practised with intercrops. A very extensive tree management with few pest control operations improved the profitability. Intensive orchards had a low bequest value at the time of inheritance, in contrast to dual-purpose orchards. The age of the farmer at planting time appeared to be a key criterion for agroforestry management adoption. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Impact of Community Forest Management on Biomass Carbon Stocks in the Uatumã Sustainable Development Reserve,Amazonas, Brazil

Forest management can result in net losses of carbon stock. To quantify the impact of the management it is important to assess losses or gains of carbon, as well as the sustainability of the management system. This study quantified the impact management under a Small-Scale Sustainable Forest Management Plan, which is a recently created category of authorized management for small managers in the state of Amazonas, Brazil. Impact was quantified on the number of individuals, the biomass of natural regeneration, and the damage to the remaining trees 2 months after logging. The impact of these changes on carbon stock was estimated. The study was carried out in the Uatumã Sustainable Development Reserve, Amazonas, Brazil, where two areas of small-scale forest management and one control were evaluated. Average total carbon stock previous to logging was estimated at 161.25 ± 9.66 MgC ha^?1. Two months after logging, reductions were found of 3% in one managed area (MA1) and 8.3% in the other (MA3), including the carbon stock from the harvested timber. For each harvested tree, the logging caused damage to 12 trees in MA1 and four trees in MA3. The reductions in carbon stock and number of trees damaged per harvested tree were less than the reductions found for higher impact forest management and other experiences in community forest management. No significant alteration was found in the carbon stock of natural regeneration. However, there was an increase in the number of individuals, both in the logged areas and in their respective control areas.     

Conceptualising ‘code complexes’: A case study of harvesting-related codes applying to forest operations in Tasmania,Australia

In the past 20 years, a proliferation of governance instruments has been developed by both state and non-state actors. Today, many industrial sectors are governed by a variety of overlapping instruments that are usually analysed separately rather than as a collective. In this paper, we make the case for analysing such codes as a collective, given that is how they are experienced from the perspective of users and how, ultimately, they achieve their governance objectives. Drawing on an exhaustive database of all related governance instruments, we present an overview of the Tasmanian forestry code complex with regard to harvesting-related forest operations, highlighting how public and private instruments relate to each other and intersect. Three key findings from the study are (a) the critical importance of Tasmania's Forest Practices Code as a master code, which sits at the centre of the State's Forest Code Complex with regard to harvesting; (b) the role that company management plans play in mediating between Tasmanian and international codes such as those endorsed by the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification and the Forest Stewardship Council; and (c) the utility of the code complex concept for comparative analyses of resource management.     

Exploratory multi-criteria analysis in sustainability impact assessment of forest-wood chains: the example of a regional case study in Baden–Württemberg

Sustainability impact assessment (SIA) is a prospective, integrated assessment approach for potential impacts of policy actions. Multi-criteria analysis (MCA) can be used to facilitate a multi-indicator evaluation in this framework in order to foster rational and transparent decision-making processes for SIA. Based on the outputs of the EFORWOOD project, this paper presents an exploratory MCA to a regional forest-wood chain (FWC) in Baden–Württemberg. This assessment is based on a set of sustainability indicators at process level for a baseline year 2005, reference futures ‘A1’ and ‘B2’ following the definition of the IPCC and a bio-energy scenario implanted into the reference future ‘A1’. The indicator values were calculated by the process tool ToSIA. It is demonstrated how time steps for parts of the regional FWC (forest management, harvest and transport to the mill gate) can be evaluated, as well as the outcomes of different scenarios for a time period. For this purpose, a novel software tool, ToSIA-MCA, is used to calculate relative sustainability impact rating (SIR) based on a PROMETHEE II algorithm. Further, we performed uncertainty analysis to test the stability of ranking results in the absence of real preference information with regard to uncertainty in indicator data. By comparing different indicator weighting patterns, the sensitivity of SIR calculation was further tested. The exploratory MCA outcomes are critically evaluated against the background of assumptions, and data used in the regional case, and an outlook is given on the importance to gain stronger stakeholder involvement in real-life applications.     

Should we respect the historical reference as basis for the objective of forest restoration? A case study from Northeastern China

Under climate change, the adoption of historical reference as the objective of forest restoration is being questioned. In this study, the spatially explicit forest landscape model LANDIS was utilized to analyze how the forest landscape in the upper Hun River area of Liaoning province in northeast China would be affected under current climate trends and future climate change; and to explore whether the historical reference should be the objective of restoration efforts. The results showed that (1) the area percentage (AP) of Quercusmongolica under climate change is always higher than that under the current climate regime, while the AP of Pinuskoraiensis is lower than that under current climate; and (2) the competitive ability of Q. mongolica and Populus davidiana increases, while that of other species decreases under climate change. As interspecies competition shifts under climate change, the historical reference appears in appropriate to serve as the objective of forest restoration. In addition, although Q. mongolica would likely benefit from a warmer and drier climate, use of this species for forest restoration under climate change still requires further research.