Micronesian prehistory: an archeological overview

The majority of archeological work in Micronesia has occurred in the last 5 years. Prehistoric peoples moved into this area from two separate areas-insular southeast Asia and eastern Melanesia. The high islands of western Micronesia were settled at least 4000 years ago. Settlement in eastern Micronesia occurred at least 2000 years ago. On high islands, complex, stratified societies developed, each with distinctive material remains. Atolls have proved to be significant sources of archeological materials and figure prominently in the prehistory of the area.     

Use of barley in the egyptian late paleolithic

Several grains of barley have been recovered from archeological sites at Wadi Kubbaniya, near Aswan in Egypt. The sites are typical Late Paleolithic and are firmly dated between 18,300 and 17,000 years ago. They seem to represent a very early use of ground grain in the Nile Valley, and evidence is presented for its continued use over the subsequent 6000 years. The Egyptian findings possibly record an initial stage of food production, and if they indeed do, then they suggest that food production may not have been brought about by environmental stress and may not have led inevitably to radical social changes.     

Obsidian hydration rate for the klamath basin of california and Oregon

A hydration rate for obsidian of 3.5(4) microns squared per 1000 radio-carbon years has been established at the Nightfire Island archeological site in northern California and provides a means to date other prehistoric Klamath Basin sites. The new rate follows the form of the hydration equation formulated by Friedman and helps to refute claims made for other hydration equations.     

Archeological evidence for pimple (pralrie) mound genesis

Archeological deposits have been discovered in three pimple mounds on the upper Texas coast. Such incorporation indicates that (i) these particular mounds are aggradational rather than erosional in origin; (ii) mound formation continued until at least A.D. 1100 to 1200; (iii) each mound took 300 to 500 years to form; (iv) mounds within the same mound field did not form simultaneously; (v) certain Gulf Coast pimple mounds have archeological research potential; and (vi) archeological data also offer a means for investigating mound formation.     

A possible bedrock source for obsidian found in archeological sites in northwestern alaska

Recently discovered deposits of obsidian in the Koyukuk valley may be the long-sought-for source of obsidian found in archeological sites in northwestern Alaska. Obsidian from these deposits compares favorably in physical characteristics and sodium-manganese ratio with the archeological obsidian, and there is evidence that the deposits have been "mined" in the past.     

Obsidian dating and East african archeology

New experimental procedures have made it possible to establish specific hydration rates for the numerous compositional types of obsidian to be found at archeological sites in Kenya. Two rates are applied to artifacts from the Prospect Farm site, revealing a history of occupation extending back 120,000 years.     

The colonization of beringia and the peopling of the new world

The colonization of Beringia appears closely linked to the arrival of the oldest firmly documented archeological tradition in mid-latitude North America (Paleoindian). The discovery of a Paleoindian complex in central Alaska, combined with the recent redating of the Bering Land Bridge and key archeological sites, suggests that Beringia was settled during the final Pleistocene interstadial (12,000 to 11,000 years before present). Its population expanded rapidly into other parts of the New World. Beringia probably was colonized in response to changes in climate and vegetation that occurred during this interstadial. Access to the Americas was controlled by Beringian environments and not by changing sea levels or continental ice masses.     

Stone age prehistory of northern Spain

The Vasco-Cantabrian region of Spain is one of the few areas of the world where a large sample of archeological sites has yielded a detailed record of the changes in the human condition in the period spanning Neanderthal times from about 125,000 years ago until the adoption of food production, less than 6000 years ago in this area. During this time, human adaptations underwent a series of crucial transformations involving profound changes in cultural systems and perthaps also in aspects of the biological basis for culture.     

Determining the season of death of mammal teeth from archeological sites: a new sectioning technique

Alternating translucent and opaque bands on the roots of mammal teeth are used to determine the age and season of death. These structures are preserved in teeth from archeological sites. However, the standard sectioning technique, which includes decalcification, often destroys archeological specimens. A new, less destructive technique provides analyzable solid sections at costs comparable to decalcification.     

Induced polarization: a geophysical method for locating cultural metallic refuse

The problem of delineating cultural refuse sites (dumps) arises in civil engineering studies. Induced polarization measurements have been successfully applied in several cases. Laboratory tests on synthetic samples indicate that the effect is due to the metal content of the dumps. The method may be applicable to archeological investigations.     

Cotton remains from archeological sites in central coastal peru

Cotton remains from four archeological sites in central coastal Peru, representing a time sequence from about 2500 to 1000 B.C., were compared with similar materials obtained from living wild and cultivated forms of Gossypium barbadense L. The comparison revealed that the archeological cotton samples were primitive forms of Gossypium barbadense, differing little from present-day wild forms of the same species. Although not the earliest cottons recorded for the New World, they appear to represent the earliest stages of cotton domestication yet recorded.     

Dating and context of rock engravings in southern Africa

Rock art is seldom recovered from sealed archeological contexts and is therefore difficult to date or integrate with other artifactual assemblages. South African engravings, found on low rocks at open-air sites, exemplify the problem. Multiscale spatial study of technique, thematic variation, faunal content, geoarcheological paterning, settlement history, and ethno-archeological setting provides coherent information on environment, time, and group identity. The major periods of naturalistic animal engravings coincide with wetter and warmer climates abot 3200 to 2500 and 2250 to 1800 years before present, but the earliest engravings may be older than 4000 years. Geometric designs were favored after 1300 years before present, when climate was drier and when one identity-conscious population of Bushman engravers first encountered domesticated animals.     

The crisis in american archeology

The current crisis in American archeology has been brought about by a combination of the greatly increased rate of destruction of unique, irreplaceable archeological information and material, and the lack of adequate funding for salvage of what is being destroyed. Since World War II, land alteration has increased almost geometrically. Land leveling, urban development, inexperienced or ignorant diggers, commercial dealers in Indian relics-these and many other agents of destruction are obliterating traces of the past. Anything that disturbs the ground where people once lived destroys forever whatever information is left about them and their way of life. Interpretations of man's cultural development through time, of his ability to cope with and use the environment wisely, and of a long, fascinating, and irreplaceable heritage are only possible if the evidence left in the ground is undisturbed and is properly recorded when it is excavated. The problem of the destruction of archeological sites and information is a complex one, with no single solution. A combination of increased support for archeological research through increased funding, and development of a knowledgeable, interested public will go a long way toward assuring this country that a significant portion of the past will be available for the benefit of future generations. If solutions are not sought and found now, it will be too late-we will have committed ourselves, irretrievably and irreversibly, to the future, without benefit or knowledge of the mistakes and the lessons of the past.     

Correlation of archeological and palynological data

Analysis of a series of pollen samples and artifact materials, taken from the same excavation units in prehistoric sites in the Middle Pecos River, valley of central eastern New Mexico, shows meaningful correlations between some major pollen groups and categories of artifacts. The correlations suggest the use of relative quantities of artifact materials to correct the distortion, resulting from cultural activity, in pollen sanmples from archeological sites.     

Archeological methodology and remote sensing

We have shown that the different spectral surveying techniques and the resultant imagery vary in their applicability to archeological prediction and exploration, but their applications are far broader than we have indicated. Their full potential, to a considerable extent, still remains unexplored. Table 1 is a chart of the more common sensor systems useful to archeological investigators. Several kinds of photography, thermal infrared imagery, and radar imagery are listed. Checks in various categories of direct and indirect utility in archeological research indicate that the different systems do provide varying degrees of input for studies in these areas. Photography and multispectral photography have the broadest applications in this field. Standard black-and-white aerial photography generally serves the purposes of archeological exploration and site analysis better than infrared scanner imagery, radar, or color photography. However, the real value of remotesensing experimentation lies in the utilization of different instruments and in the comparison and correlation of their data output. It can be stated without doubt that there is no one all-purpose remotesensing device on which the archeologist can rely that will reveal all evidence of human occupations. Remote-sensing data will not replace the traditional ground-based site survey, but, used judiciously, data gathered from aerial reconnaissance can reveal many cultural features unsuspected from the ground. The spectral properties of sites distinguishable by various types of remote sensors may perhaps be one of their most characteristic features, and yet the meaning of the differential discrimnination of features has not been determined for the most part, since such spectral properties are poorly understood at this date. The difficulty in isolating the causes of acceptable definition in certain portion of the spectrum and the lack of acceptable definition in others suggests that the evaluation of remote-sensing devices discussed in this article is not always applicable to all environmental zones at all times and for all types of cultural features. The uncontrollable variables of terrain, ground cover, weather, types of archeological manifestations, and other factors all play an important role in the utility of the imagery to the archeologist. Factors within the control of the photographer or archeolgist, such as altitude, position of the sun, and the direction of flight, can greatly influence the utility of the sensor data. In addition, the variables should not be considered solely as they affect resolution. Resolution, per se, although an important photogrammetric parameter of remote-sensing imagery, is by no means the only important factor in data analysis. The synoptic overview, which is provided by aerial imagery, is frequently as necessary in interpretation as the spotting and identification of individual cultural features. Stated more simply, we might say: "To understand, one most certainly must see the forest as well as the individual trees." For maximum data retrieval, it is necessary that the archeologist attempt to utilize as many different types of remote-sensing devices under as many variable seasonal and climatic conditions as his resources and skill will allow. Only then he can select the most efficient system for the purpose in his area of study.     

Great sand sea and selima sand sheet, eastern sahara: geochronology of desertification

The relation of playa sediments and associated archeological sites with longitudinal dunes allows estimation of ages for the two uppermost strata of the Great Sand Sea. Active dune formation corresponds with interpluvial periods of hyperaridity; dune stability corresponds with semiarid pluvial periods. Archeological sites associated with truncated paleosols in the Selima Sand Sheet suggest a similar climatic relation and indicate that the isohyets of central Sudan shifted at least 400 kilometers northward during the peak of pluvials.     

Electron spin resonance dating of animal and human bones

Ages of fossil bones were determined by electron spin resonance spectroscopy. The electron spin resonance signal is associated with lattice defects or trapped centers produced by natural radiation in the bones and gives a measure of the total dose of natural radiation, or the archeological dose. Archeological doses were determined for samples of known age from a variety of sites and used to estimate apparent average annual rates of natural radiation at the sites. The method has the advantage that the sample need not be ground or heated, and it should be useful for dating biological materials.     

Phytolith analysis of archeological soils: evidence for maize cultivation in formative ecuador

Soil samples from the archeological sites of Real Alto and OGCh-20, Santa Elena Peninsula, Ecuador, show the presence of cross-shaped silica bodies identifiable as maize (Zea mays L.) phytoliths by size comparison with known wild grass and maize phytoliths. These results support arguments for the cultivation of maize at 2450 B.C. in coastal Ecuador.     

Teotihuacan, tepeapulco, and obsidian exploitation

Current cultural ecological models of the development of civilization in central Mexico emphasize the role of subsistence production techniques and organization. The recent use of established and productive archeological surface survey techniques along natural corridors of communication between favorable niches for cultural development within the Central Mexican symbiotic region resulted in the location of sites that indicate an early development of a decentralized resource exploitation, manufacturing, and exchange network. The association of the development of this system with Teotihuacán indicates the importance such nonsubsistence production and exchange had in the evolution of this first central Mexican civilization. The later expansion of Teotihuacán into more distant areas of Mesoamerica was based on this resource exploitation model. Later civilizations centered at Tula and Tenochtitlán also used such a model in their expansion.     

The huastec region: a second locus for the production of bronze alloys in ancient mesoamerica

Chemical analyses of 51 metal artifacts, one ingot, and two pieces of intermediate processed material from two Late Post Classic archeological sites in the Huastec area of Eastern Mesoamerica point to a second production locus for copper-arsenic-tin alloys, copper-arsenic-tin artifacts, and probably copper-tin and copper-arsenic bronze artifacts. Earlier evidence had indicated that these bronze alloys were produced exclusively in West Mexico. West Mexico was the region where metallurgy first developed in Mesoamerica, although major elements of that technology had been introduced from the metallurgies of Central and South America. The bronze working component of Huastec metallurgy was transmitted from the metalworking regions of West Mexico, most likely through market systems that distributed Aztec goods.