Inappropriate incentives for pesticide use: Agricultural credit requirements in developing countries

In many developing countries, incentives for pesticide use often conflict with efforts to ensure the rational and safe use of agrochemicals. This paper analyzes agricultural credit requirements that obligate farmers to use large inputs of pesticides. It discusses the rationale and background for these kinds of agrochemical incentives and gives specific examples of quantities of chemicals required from bank guidelines in Central America. It is argued that this policy is inappropriate for the interests of both farmers and the wider public, for several reasons, which are summarized. Policy changes, such as eliminating the requirements for chemicals and establishing incentives for Integrated Pest Management, are suggested in the final part of the article.     

Food science in developing countries

It is particularly important for us not to lose sight of the fact that people have been around for a long time and that they achieved remarkable technical skills long before Western science was developed. An anonymous writer from the Food and Agriculture Organization has observed: "It is a commonplace that the fundamental discoveries which made civilization possible-fire- making, tool-making, agriculture, building, calculating, writing, money-were all apparently made outside the area which has given us the marvels of modern science" (19). The writer might well have added that it is also commonly overlooked that food technology was not suddenly developed in the 20th century but has been very much a part of the lives of people everywhere ever since they began doing more to their food than gathering it and eating it raw. Lamb's "Essay on Roast Pig" may not be an accurate account of the first conjunction of fire and food, but cooking is a rather ancient practice. Fermentation is another complicated processing technology which is a traditional part of most cultures, particularly those in warm climates-beer, yogurt, cheese, the fish pastes and sauces of Asia, the palm wine of Africa, and soy sauce, are butsome examples. Native Americans, besides accomplishing marvels in plant genetics and crop development, also developed water extraction methods for treating acorns to render the flour palatable and edible, and the alkali method of processing maize. Furthermore, they developed a cure for scurvy-by making a water extraction of pine needles which are rich in ascorbic acid-long before it was first reported by Jacques Cartier in the 16th century. Similarly, calcium-deficient diets of pregnant and nursing women were traditionally successfully supplemented by calcium-rich powdered deer antlers in northern China. Among the Chinese and Greeks, goiter was cured by eating certain kinds of seaweed centuries before the disease was traced to a lack of iodine, and Kenyans learned to suck salt-rich earth to avoid salt depletion symptoms after arduous exertion in tropical heat long before "modern science" learned why (20). The enumeration of examples could go on, but this was not meant to be an essay in folklore. The point is that all so-called primitive societies developed technologies, techniques, and a store of practical knowledge of a wide range of sophistication, by what must be admitted to be the scientific method, and neither their accomplishments and skills nor those of societies "en voie de développement" should be ignored or discounted. We are confident that modern food science and technology has much to contribute to helping the food-deficit nations eat adequately. First, we must find a way of using the best of Western technology without losing sight of the reality of the situation in the third world and without failing to take into account, better than we have done so far, the secondary and tertiary implications of the changes suggested. Second, we must encourage the examination of local problems in terms of the use and improvement of local technologies which are often quite sophisticated and the result of centuries of development. And third, we must inject a greater component of cultural awareness in the education of students to make them more creative in their application of scientific knowledge to local problems and more adaptable to the conditions that exist in developing countries. We should not lose sight of the fact that because of the precarious nature of their food supply, very often developing countries have much more rigid rules governing the production, preparation, and consumption of food than usually is the case in food-surplus societies, and disturbing these rules is a very serious matter. The time is past when "West is best" can be taken for granted; "adapt and adopt" is surely less offensively arrogant and much more to the point.     

Energy and the oil-importing developing countries

Oil-importing developing countries will need more energy during the 1980's to sustain development and to support their subsistence sectors. Development plans must be revised to reflect the potentially disastrous effects of high-cost oil on foreign exchange reserves and on national indebtedness. Energy use efficiency must be increased, and wider use must be made of domestic sources of energy-of conventional fossil and hydro sources and of new and renewable options such as biomass and other solar resources. The international community can help by careful management of world financial flows and trade agreements, expansion of capital assistance, and provision of technical assistance. The importance of improving levels of scientific and technical expertise in the less-developed countries is a challege to the worldwide scientific and engineering community.     

Medical problems of the developing countries

There can be no immediate solution to the medical problems of the developing countries. Priorities are demanded, and it must be acknowledged that in allocation of medical priorities certain compromises are required. It can be hoped that the least detrimental compromises will be selected. Careful planning of health services and also of training programs for various medical personnel must not rely on what exists in developed countries, because those facilities and programs may be completely inappropriate to other situation. At the same time as inroads are made into the preventable conditions which now claim thousands of young lives, programs of birth control and improvement of agricultural methods must be emphasized. The reduced morbidity and mortality which results from immunization against childhood infectious diseases, smallpox, and tuberculosis must be borne in mind in overall planning for schools and general health services. Inexpensive and practical programs that could be managed by medical personnel who are not highly trained should be considered. As the benefits of technical development gradually reach the urbanizing population living under poor social and hygienic conditions, changes in the disease picture must be anticipated. Those involved with planning and training must understand various cultural influences so that the transition period can be made as painless as possible. Certain seemingly attractive Western procedures should be guarded against if they are not practical. For instance, a common tendency is to build large modern hospitals throughout the land with disregard for the fact that these hospitals cannot possibly be staffed, equipped, or maintained because of shortages of trained people and available funds (14). This has been called an "edifice complex" and is unfortunately found in many developing regions, stimulated often by ill-considered advice from overseas experts. At the same time as medical services are being improved, it is extremely important to document the improvements by means of carefully recorded statistics. Guidance in necessary methods for documentation should be sought early in the development of medical care (15). Obviously it is vital to determine what and where the major medical problems are so that programs will.be designed to attack them. Once the problems are sorted out, available resources can be allocated and preventive measures and health education can be aimed at specific aspects of public health. Many general statements have been made to describe the medical problems in the developing countries of the world. There is a need to particularize the problems and approach the specific manifestations of disease with knowledge of local conditions and resources. Accepted textbook solutions no longer apply in the field, and the ultimate solution may be along lines which are completely unique and nontraditional. To break the usual rules may be the only practical means to solve the problem at hand, and modified common sense must often replace modern technology. The practical variations on the general theme described here make medical work in developing countries interesting, exciting, and rewarding.     

Mobilizing technology for developing countries

A new problem in technology policy-a discipline hitherto largely concerned with the modern industrial sector-is posed by the need for technology suited to creating productive jobs and providing minimum public services at a cost and level of sophistication within the reach of poor people in developing countries. Careful consideration must be given to overall and sectoral development objectives, economic and manpower resources, and the local institutional and sociocultural context. This may indicate the need for both hardware innovation, such as low-cost alternatives to waterborne sewerage, and social ("software") innovation, such as training large numbers of supervisors to implement improved technologies for labor-intensive civil works.     

The birth rate decline in developing countries

Family planning programs historically have played an important role in providing information and counseling and supplying modern methods. Most programs are effective due to socioeconomic development and strong political support. Potential demand for services will be growing. This means that donor agencies must commit additional funding, and users must begin paying or paying more for contraceptives. Services and method choices need to be expanded, and quality of care needs to be improved. Three primary factors will impact on fertility decline: 1) the rate of social development, 2) the speed with which small family norms spread and contraception is adopted, and 3) the facility of private and public suppliers to meet contraceptive demand. Other factors influence reproductive decisions (women's roles and status, economic hardships or opportunities, religion, ethnicity, culture, and tradition). Contraceptive prevalence has increased from under 10% in the 1960s to 38% of all married, reproductive age women in the developing world, excluding China, which has contraceptive prevalence of 72%. Regional differences are wide. In Latin America, contraceptive use averages nearly 60% and ranges from over 50% in 10 countries and below 38% in Bolivia, Guatemala, and Haiti. Contraceptive prevalence is above average in Indonesia (50%), Sri Lanka (62%), and Thailand (68%) and just below average in Bangladesh (40%), India (45%), Philippines (34%), and Vietnam (53%). Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest prevalence, except for Zimbabwe (45%), Botswana (35%), and Kenya (27%). 80% of current users rely on modern methods. In most surveyed countries, 20-30% of married women have unmet demand. Fertility decline, unmet demand, and contraceptive use have all been affected by the diffusion of ideas about the use of family planning and the small family norm. Innovators are usually high status, educated women, who spread their views to other social groups or geographic areas. The spread can be rapid in countries with few cultural, social or economic barriers. Developing world birth rates have fallen since the 1960s from an average of six children to four in the 1990s, but a replacement level of 2.1 is needed to reach balanced growth.     

Crop germplasm conservation and developing countries

Loss of the genetic diversity of some of the world's crops has accelerated in recent decades, with many crops becoming increasingly susceptible to diseases, pests, and environmental stresses. A global network of gene banks has therefore been established to provide plant breeders with the genetic resources necessary for developing more resistant crops that will enable farmers to maintain high yields. Most of these gene banks now store the germplasm of only the major crops such as cereals, potatoes, and grain legumes. Cultivated varieties of these crops are conserved as well as wild species that might otherwise become extinct. Tropical cash crops such as bananas and coconuts are also important food crops in many Third World countries, and more effort needs to be made to conserve the germplasm of these crops as well as of other important plants such as plantation crops, medicinal herbs, and fruit and timber trees.     

发达与发展中国家农业核心期刊调研

核心期刊研究是文献资源建设的重要内容.本文着重就核心期刊鉴定中应注意的问题和主要方法进行了论述,指出了发达与发展中国家农业核心期刊的区别与特点.     

Yield effects of genetically modified crops in developing countries

Onfarm field trials carried out with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton in different states of India show that the technology substantially reduces pest damage and increases yields. The yield gains are much higher than what has been reported for other countries where genetically modified crops were used mostly to replace and enhance chemical pest control. In many developing countries, small-scale farmers especially suffer big pest-related yield losses because of technical and economic constraints. Pest-resistant genetically modified crops can contribute to increased yields and agricultural growth in those situations, as the case of Bt cotton in India demonstrates.     

Breaking wheat yield barriers requires integrated efforts in developing countries

Most yield progress obtained through the so called "Green Revolution", particularly in the irrigated areas of Asia, has reached a limit, and major resistance genes are quickly overcome by the appearance of new strains of disease causing organisms.New plant stresses due to a changing environment are difficult to breed for as quickly as the changes occur.There is consequently a continual need for new research programs and breeding strategies aimed at improving yield potential, abiotic stress tolerance and resistance to new, major pests and diseases.Recent advances in plant breeding encompass novel methods of expanding genetic variability and selecting for recombinants, including the development of synthetic hexaploid, hybrid and transgenic wheats.In addition, the use of molecular approaches such as quantitative trait locus(QTL) and association mapping may increase the possibility of directly selecting positive chromosomal regions linked with natural variation for grain yield and stress resistance.The present article reviews the potential contribution of these new approaches and tools to the improvement of wheat yield in farmer's fields, with a special emphasis on the Asian countries, which are major wheat producers, and contain the highest concentration of resource-poor wheat farmers.     

Health innovation networks to help developing countries address neglected diseases

Gross inequities in disease burden between developed and developing countries are now the subject of intense global attention. Public and private donors have marshaled resources and created organizational structures to accelerate the development of new health products and to procure and distribute drugs and vaccines for the poor. Despite these encouraging efforts directed primarily from and funded by industrialized countries, sufficiency and sustainability remain enormous challenges because of the sheer magnitude of the problem. Here we highlight a complementary and increasingly important means to improve health equity: the growing ability of some developing countries to undertake health innovation.     

德宏州木薯生产发展前景分析

通过对云南德宏州自然条件和木薯生长发育对生态环境要求的分析，结合引进木薯品种两年来的试种表现和木薯高产栽培技术经验总结．得出了在德宏州大力发展木薯种植具有热量资源充沛、土地资源丰富、经济价值高、市场需求量大等四大优势，展望了在德宏州木薯综合开发利用的途径和开发前景，可供同类地区参考。