From on-farm solid-set sprinkler irrigation design to collective irrigation network design in windy areas

In this paper, a contribution to the design of collective pressurised irrigation networks in solid-set sprinkler-irrigated windy areas is presented. The methodology is based on guaranteeing minimum on-farm performance, using a historical hourly wind speed database and a ballistic solid-set irrigation simulation model. The proposed method was applied to the Montesnegros Irrigation District (central Ebro basin, Spain). The district irrigates an area of 3493 ha using an on-demand schedule. The average wind speed in the area is 2.8 m s⁻¹. An analysis of district water records showed that farmers often reduce water demand when the wind speed is high, but their irrigation decision making is limited by the capacity of the irrigation network and by the unpredictable character of local winds. Simulations were performed for 11 irrigation seasons, 2 triangular sprinkler spacings (18 m × 18 m and 18 m × 15 m), and 2 sprinkler models. The percentage of monthly suitable time for irrigation was determined for four management strategies. The first one was based on a wind speed threshold (3 m s⁻¹), while the other three were based on three levels (standard, relaxed and restrictive) of two irrigation performance parameters: the Christiansen Uniformity Coefficient (CU) and the Wind Drift and Evaporation Losses (WDEL). The standard strategy classified the time as suitable for irrigation when CU ≥ 84% and WDEL ≤ 20%. The thresholds limits of the irrigation parameters for the relaxed strategy were CU ≥ 80% and WDEL ≤ 25%. Finally, the restrictive strategy used thresholds of CU ≥ 90% and WDEL ≤ 15%. The suitable time for the first strategy (56%) was always lower than for the standard and the relaxed strategies (with respective average values of 75 and 86%), and higher than for the restrictive strategy (30%). In order to design the collective network, the hydrant operating time was equalled to the suitable time for irrigation. The differences in the cost of the collective network plus the on-farm equipment were particularly relevant between the restrictive strategy and the other three. Differences in suitable operating time were clear between sprinkler spacings, and less evident between sprinkler models. The application of the proposed methodology may be limited by the availability of historical wind speed records and CU estimates for different combinations of sprinkler models, sprinkler spacings and wind speed.     

Can shelterbelts improve sprinkler irrigation performance under windy semi arid conditions?

Field experiments were performed to study the effect that wind shelterbelts has on irrigation uniformity of hand move sprinkler irrigation system located in northwest Kenya. Catch can tests were performed to evaluate the distribution of applied water using coefficient of uniformity and distribution uniformity for plots with shelterbelt and without shelterbelt scenarios. Three medium pressure twin nozzle sprinkler head types were tested to determine their water distribution uniformity at varying wind speed and working pressure and obtained results were statistically analysed. The analysis was used to ascertain the performance of the medium pressure sprinklers under varying wind conditions for the two scenarios. Results indicate that uniformity is improved by wind for wind speeds below 1.4?m/s. Analysis of data from sheltered and unsheltered plots showed a significant difference of uniformity parameters on sheltering with coefficient of uniformity for sheltered plots averaging 84?% compared to 74?% for unsheltered plots. Results indicate that the coefficient of uniformity values were higher than the distribution uniformity values although both had a strong linear relationship with a coefficient of determination above 0.96 in both scenarios. It is concluded that shelterbelts improve sprinkler irrigation performance under windy conditions.     

Sprinkler droplet size distribution measured with an optical spectropluviometer

In solid set sprinkler irrigation systems, many factors have influence on water partitioning efficiency and uniformity. Drop size formation in the irrigation process is affected by some of these factors. Soil crustiness and damage to bare soil structure are problems associated with large drops. This study shows the results of measured drop size distributions in medium-sized sprinklers. An optical spectropluviometer (OSP) with infrared beam was used to measure drop size distributions. A variety of factors were checked: sprinkler type, nozzles, jet straightening vane and working pressure. The results showed that working pressure has the most influence on drop sizes; under low-pressure conditions, drops with a diameter of about 9 mm can be formed. The influence of the jet straightening vane and the types of nozzles and sprinklers has also been studied. A good similitude is obtained between the medium drop diameters measured and those simulated with the SIRIAS ballistic simulation model.     

The effects of pressure, nozzle diameter and meteorological conditions on the performance of agricultural impact sprinklers

This study evaluates agricultural impact sprinklers under different combinations of pressure (p), nozzle diameter (D) and meteorological conditions. The radial curve (Rad) of an isolated sprinkler, i.e., the water distribution along the wetted radius, was evaluated through 25 tests. Christiansen's uniformity coefficient (CUC) and the wind drift and evaporation losses (WDEL) were evaluated for a solid-set system using 52 tests.The Rad constitutes the footprint of a sprinkler. The CUC is intimately connected to the Rad. The Rad must be characterized under calm conditions. Very low winds, especially prevailing winds, significantly distort the water distribution. The vector average of the wind velocity (V’) is recommended as a better explanatory variable than the more popular arithmetic average (V). We recommend characterizing the Rad under indoor conditions or under conditions that meet V’ < 0.6 m s⁻¹ in open-air conditions.The Rad was mostly affected by the sprinkler model. V’ was the main explanatory variable for the CUC; p was significant as well. V was the main variable explaining the WDEL; the air temperature (T) was significant, too.Sprinkler irrigation simulators simplify the selection of a solid-set system for farmers, designers and advisors. However, the quality of the simulations greatly depends on the characterization of the Rad. This work provides useful recommendations in this area.     

Assessing whole-field sprinkler irrigation application uniformity

In order to assess whole-field sprinkler irrigation uniformity, an experiment was conducted to obtain water distribution profiles at 23 different pressures for each of five different sprinklers: Nelson R33, Nelson R33LP, Nelson R33 with road guard, Nelson R33LP with road guard, and Rainbird Mini Paw/LG-3. A mathematical model was developed to account for pressure variation throughout a fixed sprinkler system on a 10-ha field and to evaluate sprinkler irrigation uniformity for the whole field using interpolated water distribution profiles from the experimental data. The relationships between irrigation application uniformity and sprinkler pressure, sprinkler spacing, pressure variation, sprinkler type, and field topography were studied using the model. The results show that the coefficient of uniformity, CU, decreases rapidly when the pressure is below the low end of the manufacturer-recommended range; however, CU changes very little with pressure within the manufacturer-recommended range. The system application uniformity, CU_sys, is usually less when pressure variations at different locations in a field are considered, and a simple previously published equation to predict CU_sys is shown to closely approximate the CU from a more stringent calculation method. It was found that the impact of pressure variation (within the tested ranges) on application uniformity is less than that of the sprinkler spacing. Also, the effect of field topography on sprinkler application uniformity is relatively small for the cases tested herein.     

仰角和雾化程度可调式喷头的水力性能试验研究与评价

通过仰角和雾化程度可调式喷头室内外试验研究分析得出,这种新型喷头仰角实现了在7°~57°范围内连续可调;安装有雾化与射程调节器的喷头,实现了喷头的雾化及射程同步调整;喷头以间距18 m×18 m进行组合试验表明,组合喷灌均匀度都在0.86以上,组合喷灌强度都在7.6 mm/h以下。应用模糊综合评判的数学模型并结合试验数据评价目前国内外广泛使用的旋转式喷头与仰角和雾化程度可调式喷头的水力性能,结果表明该喷头具有更优越的水力性能。     

Day and night wind drift and evaporation losses in sprinkler solid-sets and moving laterals

Wind drift and evaporation losses (WDEL) represent a relevant water sink in sprinkler irrigation, particularly in areas with strong winds and high evaporative demand. The objectives of this paper include: (1) characterize WDEL under day and night operation conditions for solid-set and moving lateral configurations; (2) propose adequate predictive equations; and (3) prospect the effect of sprinkler irrigation on the meteorological variables and on the estimates of reference evapotranspiration. A total of 89 catch can irrigation evaluations were performed in both irrigation systems and under day and night conditions. Different predictive equations of WDEL were proposed for combinations of the two irrigation systems and the two operation times. The equations were selected based on their capability to explain and predict WDEL. Most equations use wind speed alone as an independent variable, although some use relative humidity or combinations of both variables plus air temperature. In the semi-arid meteorological conditions of Zaragoza (Spain), the average WDEL for the solid-set were 15.4 and 8.5% during day and night irrigations, respectively. For the experimental moving lateral, losses amounted to 9.8% during the day and 5.0% during the night. The effect of sprinkler irrigation on the meteorological variables was moderate, with small increases in relative humidity (3.9%) and decreases in air temperature (0.5 °C) during the irrigation event and a few minutes afterwards. Consequently, reference evapotranspiration, estimated by the Penman-Monteith method, decreased during the irrigation event by 0.023 mm h⁻¹ on the average. This decrease represents 2.1% of WDEL, suggesting that the WDEL do not significantly contribute to satisfy crop water requirements, and therefore constitute a consumptive water loss.     

轻小型喷灌机组能耗分析与多元回归模型

为了研究配置参数对轻小型喷灌机组能耗的影响,在基于遗传算法的喷灌机组能耗计算模型基础上,以机组4.4CP-45为例,采用四因素三水平考虑交互作用的正交设计,就管道管径、喷头间距、喷头数、喷头工作压力及其交互作用对机组单位能耗的影响进行了对比分析,在此基础上建立了机组能耗的多元回归模型.研究结果表明,喷头工作压力对能耗的影响最显著,其次为管道管径,喷头数的影响也很明显,喷头间距对能耗的影响体现在与其他参数的交互作用中.4组主要的交互作用因素中,喷头间距与喷头数的作用最敏感,其后依次为管径与喷头数、喷头间距与管径、喷头间距与喷头工作压力,因而在机组配置参数的选择中,参数间交互作用不可忽略.经综合比较,机组配置参数最优组合方式为喷头间距为15 m、管径为80 mm、喷头数9个、管道末端喷头工作压力为0.25 MPa,此时机组单位能耗为4.53 kW·h/(mm·hm²),比优化前降低了22.6%,比只考虑单因素作用得到的最优组合方式降低了1.0%,且配置参数的选择更能为用户所接受.机组能耗多元回归模型复相关系数达0.88,确定性系数为0.774,比较可靠,能为喷灌工程设计及性能评价提供一定的借鉴作用.     

组合方式对喷灌均匀度的影响研究

【目的】研究喷头不同组合方式对喷灌均匀度的影响,得到最佳的组合方式。【方法】根据FYRB471 型喷头在不同工作压力下间距1 m采样所得的无风喷洒降水强度,针对喷头分别呈正三角形、正方形、正六边形等组合方式,拟合出了喷头在不同工作压力及组合间距下的降水强度,采用克里斯琴森均匀系数计算了相应的喷灌均匀度。【结果】当工作压力一定时,不同组合方式下的喷灌均匀度都随喷头间距的增大而减小;当喷头间距一定时,组合均匀度与工作压力正相关。当间距小于5.5 m时,不同工作压力下3 种组合方式的均匀度相差不大;当间距大于5.5 m时,随着工作压力或者组合间距的增大,正三角形组合方式所提供的喷灌均匀度最优,正方形组合方式次之,正六边形组合方式最低。正三角形组合方式喷头间距变大时,喷灌均匀度降低;工作压力过大或间距过小时会增加成本,因此农业生产可兼顾考虑效率和成本选择喷头的组合方式以及工作压力,制定合理的喷灌方案。【结论】当组合间距介于5.5 m和8.5 m之间,工作压力介于200 kPa 与320 kPa 时,应考虑采用正三角形组合方式,此时的喷灌均匀度最高,达80%以上;当组合间距小于等于5.5 m时,不同工作压力下的均匀度基本相同,应考虑采用正六边形组合方式,单个喷灌设备覆盖范围最广,成本最低。     

基于节水增粮行动背景下的黑龙江省高效节水灌溉装备需求分析

黑龙江省是国家重要的商品粮基地,在节水增粮行动背景下,高效节水灌溉模式、装备类型及装备需求情况亟待解决.文中分析了全省节水增粮行动项目实施以来,其年度任务及完成情况、取得的经验及存在问题.结果表明:喷灌是目前黑龙江省旱田采用的主要灌溉模式,预测到2020年我省旱田采用的主要灌溉模式将从绞盘式喷灌逐渐演变为绞盘式喷灌与中心支轴式喷灌.装备类型将以绞盘式喷灌机与中心支轴式喷灌机为主.预计2015-2020年,绞盘式喷灌机需增加2 734台套,中心支轴式喷灌机需增加277台套,微灌设备需增加415台套.     

基于PWM技术的平移式变量喷灌机喷头流量分配方法

大型平移式喷灌机采用脉冲宽度调制(Pulse width modulation,PWM)技术实现变量灌溉作业,因喷头间喷洒区域相互重叠,由地块管理区的设计处方值求解单喷头流量较为困难。首先根据Nelson R3000型单喷头喷洒特性,得到平移式喷灌机沿桁架方向的一维叠加水量分布特性,以及平移运动后的二维叠加水量分布特性,分析确定了由4个喷头重叠喷洒控制一个管理区,并得到喷头区域喷洒分配率,在此基础上提出了按处方值进行喷头流量分配的加权均分法和基于遗传算法(Genetic algorithm,GA)的分配法。通过管理区喷洒误差分析得出,当相邻处方值变化幅度不超过最大处方值的33%时,精度可以达到5%。为了弥补GA法导致喷洒均匀性下降的不足,将加权均分法和GA法组合应用,有效降低了处方值突变带来的喷洒误差,同时保证了处方值变化较小区域的喷洒均匀性。本文方法可以扩展到4个以上喷头重叠喷洒控制一个管理区的应用场合。     

Analysis of water application cost with permanent set sprinkler irrigation systems

In order to identify the subunit design incurring the lowest costs, it is necessary to consider various factors, thereby assuring the correct hydraulic performance of the subunit. Water application costs with a sprinkler irrigation system comprise: investment cost (pumps plant, pipes, sprinklers, ditches), energy, manpower, maintenance and water costs. This work analyses the influence of different design and performance factors, such as subunit arrangement, spacing, working pressure, average application rate, and application efficiency on water application costs in a permanent set sprinkler irrigation subunit. The results show that the most important factor is the spacing between sprinklers. The next most important factor is the shape of the subunit (number of laterals and number of sprinklers per lateral). Working pressure is important too, since a decrease in pressure will result in a decrease in energy costs, although pipe diameter will need to increase. The higher the average application rate of the system, the higher the water application cost. The influence of irrigation efficiency is higher as water price increases. The water application cost can be reduced by 40% when application efficiency increases from 60% to 90%.Communicated by A. Kassam     

Combined effect of technical, meteorological and agronomical factors on solid-set sprinkler irrigation: I. Irrigation performance and soil water recharge in alfalfa and maize

In this work, maize (Zea mays L.) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) were irrigated in two adjoining plots with the same sprinkler solid-set system. Irrigation was evaluated between four sprinklers in the central position within each plot, above the canopy with pluviometers and in the soil with a FDR probe. Maize and alfalfa were simultaneously irrigated under the same operational and technical conditions during two seasons: in 2005, the solid-set irrigation system layout was rectangular, 15 m between sprinklers along the irrigation line and 15 m among lines (R15 × 15), and the seasonal irrigation applied according to the crop evapotranspiration (ET_c); in 2006, the solid-set layout was R18 × 15 and the seasonal irrigation was around 30% lower than the ET_c. The irrigation depth above the canopies (ID_C) and the soil water recharge after irrigation (RW) were monitored using a 3 m × 3 m grid (25 points in 2005 and in 30 points in 2006). For maize, RW was assessed both in the lines of plants (CL) and between the lines (BCL).The average values of ID_C were similar between crops during both seasons but the uniformity (CUC) of the ID_C noticeably depended on the crop: the differences were greater between crops than between sprinklers spacings (R15 × 15 and R18 × 15). The CUC of ID_C, the RW and the CUC of RW were greater for alfalfa than for maize. The CUC of ID_C was greater than the CUC of RW for both crops. The RW was significantly related with the ID_C throughout the irrigation season for alfalfa. The correlation was weaker for maize, with important differences between positions and between growth stages. At the beginning of the season, the RW significantly correlated with the ID_C, both in the CL and BCL positions. However, the correlation weakened when the maize grew, especially in the CL, because the maize plants redistributed the water.The results show that the height and canopy architecture of the crop must be considered in the analysis of the sprinkler water distribution as factors influencing the irrigation performance.     

自动转移喷灌机控制系统研制

现代农业要求农业生产实现机械化、规模化、自动化和智能化。设施农业作为现代农业中的高端农业，其技术和设备的发展应用具有引领典范作用。其中，节水灌溉是设施农业中一项关键技术，也是国家一直在倡导的重要举措。喷灌机通过定时定量对植物进行灌溉，以最小程度的用水量，获取最大的收益。传统喷灌机自动化程度不高，只能实现单跨自动运行，无法实现跨间自动转移，需要人工辅助，且无法进行区域选择性灌溉。为了提高温室内喷灌机自动化程度，降低劳动力成本，提高工作效率，通过总结归纳国外全自动喷灌机的结构和特点，研制了一种全自动转移喷灌机。该喷灌机系统引入RFID射频模块，它通过射频信号自动识别跨度标签，快速读取标签内数据，可用于识别不同的跨度和初定位。喷灌机主机依托转移装置可进行跨间自动转移，为了防止干扰摒弃接近开关和光电开关，使用霍尔开关作为信号检测和判断，使用西门子200CUP226作为主控制器。通过在上位机昆仑通泰触摸屏上输入喷灌次数、喷灌时间等参数，控制机器自动执行喷灌任务，而高速计数器的使用节省了转移过程中的时间。存储单元存储喷灌的次数和时间记录，方便后期数据查询和经验的数字量转化。      

Sprinkler selection for line-source irrigation systems

Summary Line-source sprinkler irrigation systems have been widely used in plant water relations studies, but lack guidelines for selection of appropriate sprinklers for specific applications. The objective of this study was to systematically evaluate different sprinkler types for potential application in a special line-source sprinkler system for a specific plot size. During its course, a general procedure was developed that can be used to analyze can-catch data from tests on single sprinklers run at different combinations of pressures and nozzle heights. This allows the water application gradient away from the sprinkler to the determined and provides data for selecting the best spacing and sprinkler pattern for maximum uniformity in a line-source application.     

非圆形喷洒域变量施水精确灌溉喷头综述

在分析传统圆形和扇形喷洒域喷头存在主要问题和总结国内外非圆形喷洒域变量施水精确灌溉喷头研究进展及实现方法的基础上，指出了国内研究和应用中存在的主要问题，并提出了在今后发展中应尽快开发园林景观用地埋式非圆形喷洒域变量施水喷头的建议。     

圆形喷灌机典型规划设计——以内蒙古阿鲁科尔沁旗绍根镇爱民温都200 hm2人工草场为例

以内蒙古阿鲁科尔沁旗绍根镇爱民温都200 hm2人工草场利用圆形喷灌机喷灌苜蓿典型规划设计工程为例，介绍了圆形喷灌机的灌溉设计流程，包括资料收集、项目规划和项目设计。对于提高喷灌工程设计水平，改善喷灌工程质量有重要的指导意义。      

Adoption and adaptation of scientific irrigation scheduling: trends from Washington,USA as of 1998

Scientific irrigation scheduling (SIS) is defined as the use of crop evapotranspiration data and soil moisture sensors to accurately determine when and how much to irrigate. Three surveys were conducted during 1997 and 1998 to determine the status of and direction for SIS in Washington. According to the survey results, nine private consultants were contracted to perform irrigation scheduling on nearly 120,000 ha per year. Conservation districts, county extension, and the national resource conservation service assisted producers in scheduling irrigation on an additional 6000 ha in a year. Two-hundred and four producers reported scheduling 26,750 ha of irrigation on their own and 6000 ha with consultants. At a minimum, the combined acreage reported in these surveys indicates an 18% adoption rate of SIS. However, the actual adoption rate is much greater if the self-implementation rate for the 200 producers is representative of the entire state.Survey results also indicated that potatoes and tree fruit account for more than half of the acreage being scheduled. The main reason producers were willing to pay for irrigation scheduling is to insure the quality of high-value crops. Energy savings became important when water needed to be lifted a considerable distance; however, water conservation, high yield, fertilizer savings, and non-point pollution reduction were considered secondary benefits. Center-pivots were the most likely irrigation systems to be scheduled and a considerable proportion of drip and solid-set sprinklers were scheduled, but a very small proportion of furrow systems and set-move sprinklers were scheduled. Over 75% of the survey respondents have personal computers and 50% have modems but less than 5% are using their computers to schedule irrigation. However, when examining the group producers who irrigate more than 405 ha, 33% are using their computers to schedule irrigation.Since computers and communication technology are available “on-farm”, and producers are showing a willingness to implement SIS on their own, Washington State University (WSU) has developed the Washington Irrigation Scheduling Expert (WISE) software and a web-based information system. Self-implemented SIS also requires increased producer knowledge along with training for potential vendors. Therefore, WSU is continuing traditional SIS educational efforts such as on-farm testing of soil moisture sensors, workshops, field days, publications and newsletters. Conversely, WSU has stopped providing full-service SIS demonstrations that compete with existing services, require intensive labor, and affect a limited number of producers. Agri-business is employing a similar strategy as self-service SIS providers have increased by seven companies since the 1998 survey.     

水力驱动带状喷灌机喷头的优化设计

为了使水力驱动带状喷灌机喷洒均匀度高、受风影响小,能够在作物行间进行喷洒作业,本研究选取不同参数的喷头对其喷头流量、射程、条带宽度及喷灌强度进行试验对比分析,试验结果表明,喷头的喷灌效果与工作压力、喷孔大小、喷射仰角及叶轮之间均存在紧密联系。该结果能够为水力驱动带状喷灌系统的喷头选型及参数设计提供参考。     

平移式喷灌机同步行走控制雨量分布仿真

通过单喷头雨量分布室内试验,获取雨量分布信息及出水轨迹信息.利用三维建模、粒子系统等虚拟现实技术,结合实际的雨量分布数据及出水轨迹,模拟出喷头喷洒水雾的三维动态模型.研究喷灌机各跨同步行走时前进方向喷灌雨量分布均匀性,实现前进速度的最优化.分析喷头配置间距和喷头高度对横向灌溉均匀度的影响,优化平移式喷灌机喷头配置.在进行单喷头雨量分布室内试验的基础上,建立了雨量分布仿真模型.仿真结果和现场试验表明：改变驱动电机的频率可以实现纵向的变量灌溉,横向的灌溉均匀度取决于喷头的型号和压力,田间与仿真试验得到的水分分布数据最大相对误差为3.39%,证明仿真模型的可信度.为平移式喷灌机同步行走控制条件下变量控制对灌溉效果的影响和优化研究提供了手段.