Low-temperature scanning electron microscopy of micro-organisms in soil

Soils were prepared by rapid freezing and examined in a frozen, hydrated state. The technique is particularly useful for the study of the distribution of microhabitats including the position of water films, hydrated clays and hydrated root surface mucilage. The relationship of fungal hyphae and bacteria to the liquid films is clearly demonstrated. The technique gives a realistic, undistorted image, without the artifacts associated with critical point drying and freeze-drying.     

Decomposition temperature sensitivity of isolated soil organic matter fractions

The general consensus is that a warming climate will result in the acceleration of soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition, thus acting as a potential positive feedback mechanism. However, the debate over the relative temperature sensitivity of labile versus recalcitrant SOM has not been fully resolved. We isolated acid hydrolysis residues to represent a recalcitrant pool of SOM and particulate organic matter (POM) to represent a labile pool of SOM, and incubated each at different temperatures to determine temperature sensitivity of decomposition. Short-term incubations of POM generated results consistent with published experiments (i.e., greater proportion of C respired and lower Q₁₀ than whole soil), while incubations of acid hydrolysis residues did not. The contrasting results illustrate the difficulty in assessing temperature sensitivity of labile versus stable SOM decomposition, partly because of the inability to quantitatively isolate labile versus stable SOM pools and to be sufficiently certain that respiration responses to temperature are not masked by processes such as enhanced stabilization or microbial inhibition/adaptation. Further study on the temperature sensitivity of decomposition of isolated SOM fractions is necessary to better explain and predict temperature responses of bulk SOM decomposition.     

Substrate quality and the temperature sensitivity of soil organic matter decomposition

Determining the relative temperature sensitivities of the decomposition of the different soil organic matter (SOM) pools is critical for predicting the long-term impacts of climate change on soil carbon (C) storage. Although kinetic theory suggests that the temperature sensitivity of SOM decomposition should increase with substrate recalcitrance, there remains little empirical evidence to support this hypothesis. In the study presented here, sub-samples from a single bulk soil sample were frozen and sequentially defrosted to produce samples of the same soil that had been incubated for different lengths of time, up to a maximum of 124 days. These samples were then placed into an incubation system which allowed CO₂ production to be monitored constantly and the response of soil respiration to short-term temperature manipulations to be investigated. The temperature sensitivity of soil CO₂ production increased significantly with incubation time suggesting that, as the most labile SOM pool was depleted the temperature sensitivity of SOM decomposition increased. This study is therefore one of the first to provide empirical support for kinetic theory. Further, using a modelling approach, we demonstrate that it is the temperature sensitivity of the decomposition of the more recalcitrant SOM pools that will determine long-term soil-C losses. Therefore, the magnitude of the positive feedback to global warming may have been underestimated in previous modelling studies.     

Compositional characterization of soil organic matter and hot-water-extractable organic matter in organic horizons using a molecular mixing model

Purpose

Microbial decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) is generally believed to be heterogeneous, resulting in the preferential loss of labile compounds such as carbohydrates and proteins and the accumulation of recalcitrant compounds such as lipids and lignin. However, these fractions are difficult to measure directly in soils. We examined patterns in the biomolecular composition of SOM and hot-water-extractable organic matter (HWEOM) by using a molecular mixing model (MMM) to estimate the content of carbohydrates, protein, lipids, and lignin.

Materials and methods

Organic-horizon soils from Spodosols at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in NH, USA were analyzed for this study. The MMM uses data from elemental analysis (C, H, and N) and ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy with cross-polarization and magic-angle spinning to estimate the percentage of total C in the various classes of biomolecules.

Results and discussion

Carbohydrate content decreased from about 50 % of the C in recent litter to approximately 35 % in the bottom of the humus layer. Lipids accounted for about 18 % of C in recent litter and increased to 40 % in the lower humus layers. The HWEOM fraction of SOM was dominated by carbohydrates (40–70 % of C). Carbohydrates and lipids in HWEOM exhibited depth patterns that were the opposite of the SOM. The results from the MMM confirmed the selective decomposition of carbohydrates and the relative accumulation of lipids during humus formation. The depth patterns in HWEOM suggest that the solubility of carbohydrates increases during decomposition, while the solubility of the lipid fraction decreases. The MMM was able to reproduce the spectral properties of SOM and HWEOM very accurately, although there were some discrepancies between the predicted and measured H/C and O/C ratios.

Conclusions

The MMM approach is an accurate and cost-effective alternative to wet-chemical methods. Together, carbohydrates and proteins account for up to 85 % of the C in HWEOM, indicating that the HWEOM fraction represents a labile source of C for microbes. Humification resulted in a decrease in carbohydrate content and an increase in lipids in SOM, consistent with investigations carried out in diverse soil environments.     

NMR studies of soil, soil organic matter and nutrients: spectroscopy and imaging

A short general review of all aspects of the NMR technique, in both the spectroscopic and imaging modes, as applied to the study of soil, is presented from a mainly technical point of view. Illustrations, in the form of spectra and images, are reproduced for whole soils, solids, solid fractions, and liquid extracts from material in the authors' group. Nuclides covered are ¹H, ¹³C, ¹⁵N, ²⁷Al and ³¹P. For solid samples the techniques employed include CP/MAS with and without TOSS, and for liquid-state studies the first high field (14.1 T) examples for soils in both one and two frequency dimensions are presented. For imaging further results from the first application of the stray field (STRAFI) technique applied to water in soil are given showing distortion-free images of both bound and free water. Finally, the first electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) and pulsed EPR results on soils will be illustrated. This paper is a slightly expanded version of an introductory talk of 35 minutes and so is not discursive. In particular the benefits of the techniques presented to soil science are only touched on. Other speakers present papers elsewhere in this issue which expand on particular aspects of the utility of NMR studies of soils.     

What determines the temperature response of soil organic matter decomposition?

The temperature dependence of litter and soil organic matter (SOM) mineralisation is important because it determines how strong the feedback from the expected warmer climate may be on the atmospheric CO₂ concentration. We have used a simple, analytical model to investigate how three different mechanism (i) the rate at which decomposers take up substrate at their surface; (ii) the rate by which substrate diffuses up to the surface of the decomposer; and (iii) the rate at which substrate is made available in the environment interact to determine the temperature response. The mechanisms are characterised by activation energies; two for the uptake rate (i) and one for each of the other two (ii, iii). The model shows that the temperature dependence is the result of the number of processes that effectively contributes to the rate of mineralisation; this result should also be valid if other processes are included. Depending upon the relative magnitude of the four activation energies, the temperature response is mainly determined by one or two of the mechanisms. In a transition zone, where all activation energies are similar and the number of contributing processes changes, there can be either a sharp increase or a sharp decrease in the temperature response when activation energies change.     

A scanning electron microscopy study of the interactions between sludge organic components and clay particles

Scanning electron microscopy was used to observe the effects of the addition of water-extracted components from sewage sludge on the fabric of kaolinite and montmorillonite saturated with Na or Ca. The SEM micrographs showed that organic components of the sludge bind the clay particles together and promote microaggregation. Possible binding mechanisms include bridge formation by organic fibers as well as coating and envelopment of the clay particles by organic substances. Application of a drying and wetting cycle to a Ca-montmorillonite/sludge mixture enhanced irreversible aggregation of the material. The organo-mineral interactions observed here for pure clays may shed light on the mechanisms involved in the stabilization of soil structure due to sludge disposal.     

Mineral surfaces and soil organic matter

The organic carbon content of soil is positively related to the specific surface area (SSA), but large amounts of organic matter in soil result in reduced SSA as determined by applying the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) equation to the adsorption of N₂. To elucidate some of the controlling mechanisms of this relation, we determined the SSA and the enthalpy of N₂ adsorption of separates with a density > 1.6 g cm^?3 from 196 mineral horizons of forest soils before and after removal of organic matter with NaOCl. Likewise, we investigated these characteristics before and after sorption of increasing amounts of organic matter to four mineral soil samples, oxides (amorphous Al(OH)₃, gibbsite, ferrihydrite, goethite, haematite), and phyllosilicates (kaolinite, illite). Sorption of organic matter reduced the SSA, depending on the amount sorbed and the type of mineral. The reduction in SSA decreased at larger organic matter loadings. The SSA of the mineral soils was positively related to the content of Fe oxyhydroxides and negatively related to the content of organic C. The strong reduction in SSA at small loadings was due primarily to the decrease in the micropores to which N₂ was accessible. This suggests preferential sorption of organic matter at reactive sites in or at the mouths of micropores during the initial sorption and attachment to less reactive sites at increasing loadings. The exponential decrease of the heat of gas adsorption with the surface loading points also to a filling or clogging of micropores at early stages of organic matter accumulation. Desorption induced a small recovery of the total SSA but not of the micropore surface area. Destruction of organic matter increased the SSA of all soil samples. The SSA of the uncovered mineral matrix related strongly to the amounts of Fe oxyhydroxides and the clay. Normalized to C removed, the increase in SSA was small in topsoils and illuvial horizons of Podzols rich in C and large for the subsoils containing little C. This suggests that micropores preferentially associate with organic matter, especially at small loadings. The coverage of the surface of the soil mineral matrix as calculated from the SSA before and after destruction of organic matter was correlated only with depth, and the relation appeared to be linear. We conclude that mineralogy is the primary control of the relation between surface area and sorption of organic matter within same soil compartments (i.e. horizons). But at the scale of complete profiles, the surface accumulation and stabilization of organic matter is additionally determined by its input.     

基于高光谱特征指数的土壤有机质含量建模

以江苏中部的水稻土和潮土为研究对象,采集178个表层土壤(0～20 cm)样品,并测定了土壤有机质含量(Soil Organic Matter,SOM).运用ASD FieldSpec 3光谱仪测量了土壤的高光谱曲线,首先对原始光谱进行倒数对数和去包络线变换,分析了不同SOM含量梯度和土壤类型的高光谱特征.其次,基于原...     

Modelling refractory soil organic matter

Most models for the turnover of soil organic matter (SOM) include a compartment that is either considered inert, or has a very slow turnover time (refractory SOM; RSOM). The RSOM content of soils varies markedly between sites, and knowledge of its size and variability are essential for determining whether soils behave as sources or sinks of atmospheric CO₂. It has also been suggested that the accurate specification of RSOM pools is essential to modelling studies, and that uncertainty in estimates of the size of RSOM pool could be a major source of error in modelling soil organic C. In this paper, current SOM models are reviewed, and approaches to modelling RSOM and its significance are discussed. Simulations of SOM turnover for the Rothamsted Broadbalk winter wheat experiment using the Rothamsted C model and CENTURY are presented as examples. Received: 13 July 1999     

Photodissolution of soil organic matter

Sunlight has been shown to enhance loss of organic matter from aquatic sediments and terrestrial plant litter, so we tested for similar reactions in mineral soil horizons. Losses of up to a third of particulate organic carbon occurred after continuous exposure to full-strength sunlight for dozens of hours, with similar amounts appearing as photodissolved organic carbon. Nitrogen dissolved similarly, appearing partly as ammonium. Modified experiments with interruption of irradiation to include extended dark incubation periods increased loss of total organic carbon, implying remineralization by some combination of light and microbes. These photodissolution reactions respond strongly to water content, with reaction extent under air-dry to fully wet conditions increasing by a factor of 3–4 fold. Light limitation was explored using lamp intensity and soil depth experiments. Reaction extent varied linearly with lamp intensity. Depth experiments indicate that attenuation of reaction occurs within the top tens to hundreds of micrometers of soil depth. Our data allow only order-of-magnitude extrapolations to field conditions, but suggest that this type of reaction could induce loss of 10–20% of soil organic carbon in the top 10 cm horizon over a century. It may therefore have contributed to historical losses of soil carbon via agriculture, and should be considered in soil management on similar time scales.     

Pedometric mapping of soil organic matter using a soil map with quantified uncertainty

This paper compares three models that use soil type information from point observations and a soil map to map the topsoil organic matter content for the province of Drenthe in the Netherlands. The models differ in how the information on soil type is obtained: model 1 uses soil type as depicted on the soil map for calibration and prediction; model 2 uses soil type as observed in the field for calibration and soil type as depicted on the map for prediction; and model 3 uses observed soil type for calibration and a pedometric soil map with quantified uncertainty for prediction. Calibration of the trend on observed soil type resulted in a much stronger predictive relationship between soil organic matter content and soil type than calibration on mapped soil type. Validation with an independent probability sample showed that model 3 out‐performed models 1 and 2 in terms of the mean squared error. However, model 3 over‐estimated the prediction error variance and so was too pessimistic about prediction accuracy. Model 2 performed the worst: it had the largest mean squared error and the prediction error variance was strongly under‐estimated. Thus validation confirmed that calibration on observed soil type is only valid when the uncertainty about soil type at prediction sites is explicitly accounted for by the model. We conclude that whenever information about the uncertainty of the soil map is available and both soil property and soil type are observed at sampling sites, model 3 can be an improvement over the conventional model 1.     

C and N NMR spectroscopy as a tool in soil organic matter studies

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a valuable tool for the characterization of soil organic matter and humification processes in soils. This review highlights soil organic matter studies based mainly on solid-state ¹³C and ¹⁵N NMR spectroscopy and some emerging applications, that may provide significant progress in our knowledge on soil organic matter. A major advantage of Nmr spectroscopy is that it can be used as a non-invasive method for solid soil samples or soil fractions. Although resolution is limited, one can obtain an overview on the organic matter structures present in the soil sample. Application of ¹³C and ¹⁵N NMR to soils has, for a long time, been confined to the study of bulk soils or humic extracts for structural characterization. The transformations of soil organic C and N are now being investigated after addition of ¹³C- and ¹⁵N-labelled parent materials to the soil and following their evolution in different C and N pools. With labelling techniques it is also possible to study the interaction of organic pollutants with soil organic matter. Contamination of a soil with man-made additives, such as soot or brown coal dust, can also be detected in soils or individual soil fractions.     

A European network of long-term sites for studies on soil organic matter

In this paper we describe the GCTE global Soil Organic Matter Network (SOMNET) before focusing on the European network of long-term sites. We then select two examples from the European site network and demonstrate how such data can be used to (a) track long-term changes in soil organic matter, (b) evaluate and compare soil organic matter models, and (c) make rough estimates of the potential for carbon (C) sequestration in soils at the regional (European) level. Our simple calculations based on only two long-term experiments suggest that amendment of arable soils with 10 Mg ha⁻¹ of organic manure could lead to an increase in current total European soil C stock to 30 cm of about 4.8% over 90 yr, a scenario with limited potential for sequestering C. Similarly, afforestation through natural woodland regeneration of 30% of current arable land (surplus to requirements by 2010) could lead to an increase in current total European soil C stock of 12.4% over 100 yr. This is equivalent to 43 Tg C yr⁻¹ or 3.8% of anthropogenic CO₂–C emissions from Europe. If temporary C storage in standing woody biomass is included in the estimate, the amount of C sequestered is quadrupled and could account for 15.28% of Europe's annual CO₂–C emissions. This is equivalent to 2.8% of annual global anthropogenic CO₂–C emissions. These calculations are presented to demonstrate a simple technique for estimating rough C sequestration potentials but they do suggest some potential to sequester C in European agricultural soils. As a result, a more sophisticated approach using statistical relationships derived from a large number of long-term experiments was developed. The need for balancing the effects of these scenarios on soil C against other environmental considerations is discussed. Methods for improving estimates of the potential for soil C sequestration using the European site network are also discussed.     

荒漠土壤有机质含量高光谱估算模型

为解决荒漠土壤有机质含量高光谱估算存在的困难,提高土壤有机质含量估算的精准性,该文对准噶尔盆地东部荒漠土壤进行采样、化验分析和光谱测量、处理,分析土壤光谱与有机质含量的相关性,确定敏感光谱波段,建立荒漠土壤有机质含量多种高光谱估算模型,旨在通过模型精度的比较,确定最优模型。结果表明：反射率、倒数对数光谱与荒漠土壤有机质含量相关性低,而经过一阶微分、二阶微分变换后,相关系数有所提高,部分波段的相关系数通过0.01显著水平的检验,可以用来荒漠土壤有机质含量的估算;一元线性回归建立的估算模型的精度低,不适用荒漠土壤有机质含量高光谱的估算。荒漠土壤有机质多元逐步回归模型的二阶微分、倒数对数二阶微分修正决定系数得到了较大提高,分别提高了0.22和0.31,均方根误差下降了0.66和0.80,建模精度高于一元线性回归模型。荒漠土壤有机质一阶微分、二阶微分光谱的最小偏二乘回归模型的决定系数比其多元逐步回归模型提高了0.07、0.04,一阶微分、二阶微分均方根误差都下降了0.11,二阶微分偏最小二乘法回归模型是该研究所建12个模型的最优估算模型。在多元逐步、偏最小二乘回归模型中,最优估算模型是二阶微分模型,因而用偏最小二乘法回归估算荒漠土壤有机质含量是个可行的方法。该研究的成果为荒漠土壤有机质高光谱遥感分析提供了支撑,实现荒漠土壤有机质监测的时效性、准确性,为区域生态环境的修复提供依据。     

滩涂土壤有机质含量的反射光谱估算

Rapid determination of soil organic matter (SOM) using regression models based on soil reflectance spectral data serves an important function in precision agriculture. “deviation of arch”(DOA)-based regression and partial least squares regression (PLSR) are two popular modeling approaches to predict SOM. However, few studies have explored the accuracy of the DOA-based regression and PLSR models. Therefore, the DOA-based regression and PLSR were applied to the visible near-infrared (VNIR) spectra to estimate SOM content in the case of various dataset divisions. A two-fold cross-validation scheme was adopted and repeated 10 000 times for rigorous evaluation of the DOA-based models in comparison with the widely used PLSR model. Soil samples were collected for SOM analysis in the coastal area of northern Jiangsu Province, China. The results indicated that both modelling methods provided reasonable estimates of SOM, with PLSR outperforming DOA-based regression in general. However, the performance of PLSR for the validation dataset decreased more noticeably. Among the four DOA-based models, the linear model of the DOA provided the best estimation of SOM and a cutoff of SOM content (19.76 g kg^-1), and the performance for calibration and validation datasets was consistent. As the SOM content exceeded 19.76 g kg^-1, SOM became more effective in masking the spectral features of other soil properties to a certain extent. This work confirmed that reflectance spectroscopy combined with PLSR could serve as a non-destructive and cost-efficient way for rapid determination of SOM when hyperspectral data were available. The DOA-based model, which requires only 3 bands in the visible spectra, also provided SOM estimation with acceptable accuracy.     

利用高程辅助进行土壤有机质的随机模拟

为了探讨在条件模拟计算环境下,是否可以利用高程数据辅助提高土壤有机质空间变化的预测精度及相应的预测不确定性模拟的准确性,该文在北京市平谷区内选取研究样区,以土壤有机质作为目标变量,一方面利用序贯高斯模拟法对土壤有机质的空间分布进行模拟,另一方面以高程作为辅助信息,利用序贯高斯协模拟法对土壤有机质的空间分布进行模拟,然后对两种方法的模拟结果进行对比分析。结果表明,在土壤有机质的空间预测精度、模拟预测结果的局部不确定性和模拟预测结果的空间不确定性三方面,通过将高程数据考虑进有机质条件模拟过程中,准确性都得到了提高。这对于农业可持续发展以及全球碳平衡研究都具有十分重要的意义。     

Soil organic matter composition and soil lightness

Relationships between soil lightness, soil organic matter (SOM) composition, content of organic C, CaCO₃, and texture were studied using 42 top‐soil horizons from different soil types located in southern Germany. SOM composition was determined by CPMAS ¹³C NMR spectroscopy, soil color was measured by diffuse‐reflectance spectrophotometry and given in the CIE L*a*b* color coordination system (Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage, 1978). Multiple‐regression analysis showed, that soil lightness of top‐soil horizons is principally determined by OC concentration, but CaCO₃ and soil texture are also major variables. Soil lightness decreased with increasing OC content. Carbonate content had an important effect on soil lightness even at low concentrations due to its lightening property. Regressions between soil lightness and organic C content were strongly linear, when the soils were differentiated according to texture and CaCO₃ content. The aryl‐C content was the only SOM component which correlated significantly with soil lightness (r_S = –0.87). In the linear regressions carried out on the different soil groups, soil aryl‐C content was a more significant predictor for soil lightness than total OC content.     

Cation-exchange properties of soil organic matter

The CEC was determined for humic acid preparations by changing the conditions for the CEC procedure and the CEC values obtained were compared with those of clay minerals. Humic acid was extracted from Kodonbaru and Kuriyagawa surface soils, Iwanuma peat, and straw with 0.1 M Na₄P₂O₇-0.l M NaOH. The CEC was measured by a method which eliminates washing for the removal of excess saturating salt.

The CEC of humic acid became larger as humification progressed, and increased in the order: Straw<Iwanuma<Kuriyagawa<Kodonbaru. An equilibrium of cation exchange for the humic acid preparations was attained in a short time in contrast with that for allophane. No effect of salt concentration on the CEC of the humic acid preparations was recognized. The CEC of humic acid was also determine using the procedure in which tbe excess salt was removed by washing with water. Practically no decrease of CEC with decreasing salt concentration was found. When the pH of the salt solution WBB reduced, the em: of the humic acid decreased, though the extent of the decrease was smaller than that of allophane. The CEC of halloysite and montmorillonite did not decrease through reduction of the pH of the salt solution. It was considered that humic acid is a stronger acid than allophane and a weaker acid than halloysite and montmorillonite. The difference between the CEC of humic add measured with Ca²⁺ and Ba²⁺ was small. Little temperature effect was observed for humic acid.     

The quality of exogenous organic matter: short-term effects on soil physical properties and soil organic matter fractions

We examined the short-term effect of five organic amendments and compared them to plots fertilized with inorganic fertilizer and unfertilized plots on aggregate stability and hydraulic conductivity, and on the OC and ON distribution in physically separated SOM fractions. After less than 1 year, the addition of organic amendments significantly increased ( P  <   0.01) the aggregate stability and hydraulic conductivity. The stability index ranged between 0.97 and 1.76 and the hydraulic conductivity between 1.23 and 2.80 × 10⁻³ m/s for the plots receiving organic amendments, compared with 0.34–0.43, and 0.42–0.64 × 10⁻³ m/s, respectively, for the unamended plots. There were significant differences between the organic amendments (P <  0.01), although these results were not unequivocal for both soil physical parameters. The total OC and ON content were significantly increased ( P  <   0.05) by only two applications of organic fertilizers: between 1.10 and 1.51% OC for the amended plots versus 0.98–1.08% for the unamended and between 0.092 and 0.131% ON versus 0.092–0.098% respectively. The amount of OC and ON in the free particulate organic matter fraction was also significantly increased ( P  <   0.05), but there were no significant differences ( P  <   0.05) in the OC and ON content in the POM occluded in micro-aggregates and in the silt + clay-sized organic matter fraction. The results showed that even in less than 1 year pronounced effects on soil physical properties and on the distribution of OC and ON in the SOM fractions occurred.