Rhizosphere effects on soil bacterial abundance and diversity in the Yellow River Deltaic ecosystem as influenced by petroleum contamination and soil salinization

In this study, we compared the differences of bacterial abundance and diversity between rhizosphere and surrounding bulk soils under soil salinization and petroleum contamination in the Yellow River Delta on a 110-km-distance scale. In comparison with bulk soils, rhizosphere soils were mainly characterized by lower salinity and higher water content in saline soils. For bacterial abundance, the numbers of total bacteria and hydrocarbon degraders were significantly higher in rhizosphere soils than those in bulk soils. Although there was no significant difference in total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) concentration between the two types of soils, TPH had distinctly different effects on bacterial abundance in rhizosphere and bulk soils. TPH concentration was the major determinant of total bacterial abundance and had positive effects on abundances of hydrocarbon degraders. However, the abundances of total bacteria and hydrocarbon degraders in bulk soils were primarily determined by soil salinity and water content. Great abundance of rhizosphere bacteria suggested that plant roots could alleviate the stresses from soil salinization and provide more favorable microhabitats for bacterial growth. TPH had positive effects on bacterial diversity of both rhizosphere and bulk soils. Our results support the view that petroleum in the environments functions as both toxic chemicals and carbon sources to soil bacteria. Great abundance and diversity of total bacteria in plant rhizospheres would potentially improve the roles of bacteria in maintaining ecosystem functioning in the degraded ecosystems. Our results would improve our understanding of the relationships between rhizosphere effects and multiple environmental stresses that control the development of bacterial community in fragile anthropologically-affected ecosystems.     

Response of soil microbial abundance and diversity in Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) farms with different land-use histories in a tropical area of Southwestern China

Land-use conversion affects the soil community and microbial abundance, which are essential dynamic indicators of soil quality and sustainability. However, little to no work has been performed to analyse the impact from different land-use histories (i.e. fallow, tea, rice, banana, and maize) on the microbial abundance and diversity in the soil of sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.). Real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) was performed to quantify soil bacterial and fungal abundance. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) combined with cloning and sequencing was used to assess the microbial communities. Our results showed that the bacterial and fungal abundance in fallow land-use conversion soils was significantly lower than that in the other four land-use conversion soils (tea, rice, banana, and maize). Moreover, the highest abundance of bacteria and fungi was detected in the soils converted from maize to sacha inchicultivation. In addition, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) showed that the total N and pH were significantly related to bacterial and fungal community structures. These results suggest that land-use conversion from maize fields to sacha inchi farms is an effective way to maintain the soil microbial quantity and hence the sustainability of the soil.     

Clay minerals of sediments in the Yatsushiro bay

Since three decades ago it has been established by numerous investigators⁴,⁷,⁹⁾ that the general Process of formation of clay minerals is different between the marine and terrestrial conditions, and that the clays of the marine origin are, in general, of illitic type, whereas those of the terrestrial are of kaolin group. In previous communications,¹,²⁾ it was reported that clay fractions of the soil and mud from the Ariake Sea are characterized by the abundance of minerals of illite-montmorin series (montmorin refers to montmorillonite group after Jackson and Sherman⁸⁾, being different from most terrestrial soils in Kyushu. The matter seems to be of some importance because the Presence of montmorin, even in a relatively small quantity, is likely to exercise a considerable, influence on the behaviour and properties of the clay and the fertility of the soil. The soils of the reclaimed land of the Sea are not only productive, Whether they are clayey or sandy, but also they have been approved to be powerful improving materials for the degraded paddy soils, so-called “Akiochi” soils by several field experiments.     

Molecular analysis of the major capsid genes (<Emphasis Type="Italic">g23</Emphasis>) of T4-type bacteriophages in an upland black soil in Northeast China

Bacteriophages (phages) are the most abundant biological entities on the planet and are important as the greatest genomic reservoirs in both marine and terrestrial environments. In this study, we analysed T4-type phage communities in an upland black soil by monitoring g23 clones in DNA extracted from seasonal soil samples with no fertilizer, chemical fertilizers, chemical fertilizers plus manure, and natural restoration treatments. PCR products with degenerate primers MZIA1bis and MZIA6 were subjected to denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. In total, 46 clones with different g23 sequences were obtained. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that T4-type phage communities in the upland black soil were distinctly different from those in marine environments and in an Antarctic lake, which strongly suggested that T4-type phage communities in soil differed from those in aquatic environments. Among 46 clones, 18 clones formed clusters with the clones from rice field soils, 14 clones formed three new clusters, and 13 clones were left as ungrouped, which indicated that T4-type phage communities in the upland black soil were relatively similar to those in rice field soils but that specific communities also inhabit in the upland black soil exclusively.     

苏云金芽孢杆菌菌剂对棉花根际土壤细菌数量及多样性的影响

采用稀释平板培养法与PCR-DGGE技术, 以阿维菌素为阳性对照, 水为阴性对照, 研究了大田喷施推荐剂量(0.1 kg·hm^-2)和高剂量(10 kg·hm^-2)苏云金芽孢杆菌(Bt)菌剂对棉花根际土壤细菌种群数量及结构的影响。结果表明, 喷雾处理后1~3 d, 不同处理组土壤细菌数量间无显著性差异, 在3 d时细菌数量均值达到最大, 之后开始下降, 12 d后清水对照、推荐剂量Bt菌剂、高剂量Bt菌剂处理组土壤细菌数量均值维持在4.0×107 CFU·g^-1左右; 推荐剂量Bt菌剂处理样品土壤细菌数量在6 d时显著高于清水对照, 其余时间与清水对照间无显著性差异; 高剂量Bt菌剂处理与清水对照在整个试验期间均无显著性差异; 阿维菌素处理组土壤细菌数量在0~6 d内与清水对照无显著性差异, 而在12~45 d内显著低于其他3个处理组。DGGE图谱显示, Bt菌剂处理对棉花根际土壤17种细菌均无显著抑制作用。聚类分析结果表明, Bt菌剂对土壤细菌群落结构的扰动在12 d后得到恢复。与阴性对照组相比, Bt菌剂对土壤细菌多样性指数无显著影响, 而阳性对照阿维菌素对土壤细菌种群消长和多样性指数有较强的影响。对DGGE图谱中17条电泳条带的序列分析, 证明棉花根际土壤中存在起固氮作用的慢生根瘤菌属细菌和具有污染修复与净化活性的鞘脂菌属、鞘氨醇单胞菌属和红球菌属细菌。Bt菌剂与阿维菌素处理均对这些土壤有益菌群无明显不利影响。总体结果表明, Bt菌剂无论是在正常推荐剂量下还是在较高剂量(推荐剂量的100倍)下使用, 对棉花根际土壤微生态环境产生的冲击都较小, 是一种生态安全性较高的生物农药。     

Factors influencing variability of proteolytic genes and activities in arable soils

Microorganisms, capable of proteolysis, are widely distributed in soil but almost nothing is known about the abundance of genes related to protein degradation and the regulation of their activity in terrestrial ecosystems. Therefore, the aim of this study was: (1) to quantify two bacterial genes involved in protein degradation, (2) to investigate factors affecting the abundance of these genes, and (3) to relate this data to potential proteolytic activities. For this purpose, an arable field in southern Germany under integrated management was studied. The uniformly managed field showed pronounced soil heterogeneity with four different soil types. In April, July and October 2003, soil samples were taken from the four soil types at three different depths. We applied a real-time PCR assay for quantification of subtilisin (sub) and neutral metalloprotease (npr) genes, both encoding for extracellular proteases, as well as the 16S rRNA gene representing a rough estimate of the size of the bacterial populations. Potential proteolytic activity was measured using casein as a substrate. Both soil type and time of sampling influenced the size and activity of the bacterial protease genes under investigation. Total nitrogen and carbon availability was, beside soil texture, the main factor responsible for the observed changes in the abundance of proteolytic genes and potential proteolytic activity. Whereas a positive relationship was found between sub and npr gene copy numbers and the number of 16S rRNA gene copies in all cases, a positive relationship between sub and npr coding genes and potential proteolytic activity was only found for sandy soils. This indicates that sandy soils cannot stabilize proteolytic enzymes and the activity of npr and sub genes is strictly dependent on the presence of the corresponding genes. In contrast, in clay soils proteolytic activity was not correlated with the abundance of the genes analyzed, probably due to the stabilization of the proteolytic enzymes.     

中国北方温带草原土壤微生物对气温变暖与添加氮素的响应特征

The responses of soil microbes to global warming and nitrogen enrichment can profoundly affect terrestrial ecosystem functions and the ecosystem feedbacks to climate change. However, the interactive effect of warming and nitrogen enrichment on soil microbial community is unclear. In this study, individual and interactive effects of experimental warming and nitrogen addition on the soil microbial community were investigated in a long-term field experiment in a temperate steppe of northern China. The field experiment started in 2006 and soils were sampled in 2010 and analyzed for phospholipid fatty acids to characterize the soil microbial communities. Some soil chemical properties were also determined. Five-year experimental warming significantly increased soil total microbial biomass and the proportion of Gram-negative bacteria in the soils. Long-term nitrogen addition decreased soil microbial biomass at the 0-10 cm soil depth and the relative abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the soils. Little interactive effect on soil microbes was detected when experimental warming and nitrogen addition were combined. Soil microbial biomass positively correlated with soil total C and N, but basically did not relate to the soil C/N ratio and pH. Our results suggest that future global warming or nitrogen enrichment may significantly change the soil microbial communities in the temperate steppes in northern China.     

Bacterial growth and growth-limiting nutrients following chronic nitrogen additions to a hardwood forest soil

Increasing nitrogen (N) deposition due to anthropogenic activities has become a significant global change threat to N-poor terrestrial ecosystems. We compared bacterial growth and nutrients limiting bacterial growth in one of the longest running experiments on increasing N-deposition to a temperate forest, the Chronic Nitrogen Amendment Study at Harvard Forest, USA. Soil samples were collected in fall 2009 from the organic and mineral horizons of plots treated annually since 1988 with 0 (unfertilized), 50 (low N) or 150 (high N) kg N ha⁻¹ as NH₄NO₃. In the organic horizon, bacterial growth (leucine incorporation) decreased by 5 times in the high N plots compared to the unfertilized treatment, while no decrease was observed in the mineral horizon. Bacterial growth in all soils was primarily limited by lack of carbon (C), although adding only C (as glucose) resulted in only a minor increase in bacterial growth in the unfertilized soil compared to adding C in combination with N. The bacterial growth induced by adding only C increased with higher level of N fertilization, up to 7–8 times the level without any C addition in the high N treatment, suggesting increased availability of N for the bacteria with increasing N addition.     

Plot-scale manipulations of organic matter inputs to soils correlate with shifts in microbial community composition in a lowland tropical rain forest

Little is known about the organisms responsible for decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems, or how variations in their relative abundance may influence soil carbon (C) cycling. Here, we altered organic matter in situ by manipulating both litter and throughfall inputs to tropical rain forest soils, and then used qPCR and error-corrected bar-coded pyrosequencing to investigate how the resulting changes in soil chemical properties affected microbial community structure. The plot-scale manipulations drove significant changes in microbial community composition: Acidobacteria were present in greater relative abundance in litter removal plots than in double-litter plots, while Alphaproteobacteria were found in higher relative abundance in double-litter and throughfall reduction plots than in control or litter removal plots. In addition, the bacterial:archaeal ratio was higher in double-litter than no-litter plots. The relative abundances of Actinobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria were positively correlated with microbial biomass C and nitrogen (N), and soil N and C pools, while acidobacterial relative abundance was negatively correlated with these same factors. Bacterial:archaeal ratios were positively correlated with soil moisture, total soil C and N, extractable ammonium pools, and soil C:N ratios. Additionally, bacterial:archaeal ratios were positively related to the relative abundance of Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Actinobacteria, and negatively correlated to the relative abundance of Nitrospira and Acidobacteria. Together, our results support the copiotrophic/oligotrophic model of soil heterotrophic microbes suggested by Fierer et al. (2007).     

生物炭对酸化茶园土壤性状和细菌群落结构的影响

  【目的】   生物炭作为一种高效、绿色、多功能的土壤调理剂受到了广泛关注,但生物炭对酸化茶园土壤改良的长期效应还缺乏了解。研究施用生物炭5年后对茶园土壤性状和细菌群落结构的影响,为生物炭在酸化土壤改良上的合理应用提供科学依据。   【方法】   茶园生物炭田间试验在福建安溪县进行,茶园种植年限超过7年,茶树品种为铁观音,土壤为黄壤 。试验设生物炭施用量0、2.5、5、10、20和40 t/hm2共6个水平,一次施入土壤,5年后调查了茶园土壤pH、电导率 (EC)、可溶性有机碳含量、细菌群落结构变化及它们间的相关关系。   【结果】   施用生物炭5年后,茶园土壤pH提高了0.16～1.11个单位,可溶性有机碳含量提高了52.6%～92.3%,EC值降低了1.85%～47.77%,其中施用10～40 t/hm2生物炭处理的pH值均显著高于0～5 t/hm2处理。施用生物炭5年对土壤性质的改变,进一步影响了细菌群落结构,细菌群落Chao指数、ACE指数表现为随生物炭施用量增加而增加得趋势,Shannon指数呈现先增加后降低的趋势。施用生物炭促进了适宜酸中性或弱碱性环境的节杆菌属、硝化螺旋菌属、黄色杆菌科细菌相对丰度的增加,降低了嗜酸性细菌如酸杆菌属细菌的相对丰度。细菌群落结构与环境因子的关联分析表明,施用0～10 t/hm2生物炭处理细菌群落结构受pH、EC环境因子的影响较大;施用20～40 t/hm2生物炭处理细菌群落结构受土壤可溶性有机碳等环境因子的影响较大;其中硝化螺旋菌属、α-变形菌门、酸杆菌属、康奈斯氏杆菌属等的相对丰度与土壤pH、EC值间具有显著相关性。   【结论】   在酸化茶园施用生物炭5年后,土壤pH、EC和可溶性有机碳含量发生了显著变化,增加了细菌群落多样性指数,且适宜酸中性或弱碱性环境的细菌丰度增加,嗜酸性细菌丰度降低;其中施用0～10 t/hm2生物炭的处理土壤pH、EC是显著影响细菌群落结构的环境因子,施用20～40 t/hm2生物炭的处理土壤可溶性有机碳含量是显著影响细菌群落结构的环境因子。     

Functional shifts of grassland soil communities in response to soil warming

In terrestrial ecosystems most carbon (C) occurs below-ground, making the activity of soil decomposer organisms critical to the global carbon cycle. Temperate grassland ecosystems, contain large, diverse and active soil meso- and macrofauna decomposer communities. Understanding the effects of climate change on their ecology offers a first step towards meaningful predictions of changes in soil organic carbon mineralisation.We examined the effects of soil warming on the abundance, diversity and ecology of temperate grassland soil fauna functional groups, ecosystem net CO₂ flux and respiration and plant above- and below-ground productivity in a 2-year plant-soil mesocosm experiment. Low voltage heating cable mounted on a framework of stainless steel mesh provided a constant 3.5 °C difference between control and warmed mesocosm soils.Results showed that this temperature increment had little effect on soil respiration and above-ground plant biomass. There was, however, a significant effect on the soil fauna due to warmer conditions and increased root growth, with significant decreases in the numbers in the large oligochaete groups and Prostigmata mites and the re-distribution of enchytraeids to deeper soil layers. Functional groups exhibited individualistic responses to soil warming, with the total disappearance of epigeic species in the case of the ecosystem engineers and an increased diversity of fungivorous mites that, together, produced significant changes in the composition and trophic structure of the fauna community.The observed switch towards a fungal driven food web has important implications for the fate of soil organic carbon in temperate ecosystems subjected to sustained warming. Accordingly, soil biology needs to be properly incorporated in C models to make better predictions of the fate of SOC under warmer scenarios.     

Soil bacterial community responses to cadmium and lead stabilization during ecological restoration of an abandoned mine

Ecological restoration refers to the gradual recovery of damaged ecosystems by utilizing their self-recovery capacity and artificial measures. It is considered as an effective technique to alleviate heavy metal pollution in open-pit mining soils. However, little is known about the stability of heavy metals and soil bacterial responses in artificially restored soil-plant systems. In this study, different vegetation restoration strategies were established in the Dabaoshan mining area, China, and the accumulation and transfer of Cd/Pb in the soil-plant system and the responses of the soil bacterial community were investigated. Results showed that ecological restoration with a combination of trees, shrubs and grasses/herbs could increase soil cation-exchange capacity and organic matter content, but not soil pH. The mixture of trees, shrubs and grasses/herbs was most effective for reducing the available Pb content to 33.7% of the content in the control, and the mixture of trees and grasses/herbs was beneficial in reducing Cd to 60.4% of the content in the control. Data showed that ecological restoration could change the quantity, composition and community structure of soil microorganisms. The soils in which a mixture of trees, shrubs and grasses/herbs were grown had the greatest abundance and diversity of bacteria; the abundances of Proteobacteria increased by 12% and Actinobacteria by 5% from those of the control. Plant coverage, soil available Cd content, and organic matter emerged as major determinants of bacterial community composition. This study demonstrates a promising remediation strategy for limiting Cd/Pb mobility in mining areas.     

Abundance of bacterial genes encoding for proteases and chitinases in the rhizosphere of three different potato cultivars

In terrestrial ecosystems, the majority of soil N is present in organic macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids and chitin. Because these compounds cannot be assimilated by plants, plant growth is often N-limited. Therefore, the hydrolysis of proteins and chitin is particularly important in making N available for plants. In this study, we investigated the influence of different potato cultivars and different plant developmental stages on the abundance of genes encoding for alkaline and neutral metalloproteases (apr, npr) as well as bacterial chitinases (chiA) in the rhizosphere using quantitative real-time PCR in a greenhouse trial and a field study. It could be clearly demonstrated that abundance pattern was mainly affected by the plant vegetation stage, whilst the used plant genotype had only a minor influence on the development of the two functional populations.     

Changes in the Abundance of Vascular Plants under the Impact of Industrial Air Pollution: A Meta-analysis

We applied a meta-analytic approach to improve an understanding of the effects of pollution on the primary productivity of terrestrial ecosystems. We identified 73 data sources reporting changes in the abundance of vascular plants (measured as the percentage of ground cover, biomass per unit area, canopy closure and stem basal area) around 75 polluters located in 18 countries (137 effect sizes). The overall effect was negative but varied among the vegetation layers and types of polluters. The strongest detrimental impact on productivity was due to non-ferrous smelters. The abundance of trees was decreased around both acidifying and alkalifying polluters, whereas the abundance of shrubs and field-layer vegetation decreased only near acidifying polluters. Overall, a decline of vegetation was observed in boreal and temperate forests but not in treeless biomes (deserts, tundra or grasslands). The magnitude of the detrimental effects on trees increased with the duration of the polluters?? impact around acidifying polluters but decreased around alkalifying polluters. Adverse effects on the field layer became more severe with increasing community productivity; in combination with the conclusions of previous meta-analyses, this result indicates that diverse and highly productive communities are likely to be the most susceptible to pollution impacts. In general, the pollution effects on the abundance of vascular plants were less detrimental than the effects on their growth and diversity, indicating that primary productivity in polluted ecosystems is maintained by the preferential growth of several pollution-tolerant species.     

Studies of Azotobacter bacteriophages in Egyptian soils

Azotobacter bacteriophages in soils were investigated by liquid enrichment culture. The survey included 44 soil samples representing various localities mainly from the Nile Valley in Egypt. Most of the samples (76.5 per cent) were enriched for phage up to titers of > 10⁶ plaque-forming units/ml. Occasional agitation, rather than continuous shaking, of the soil enrichments led to the enrichment and conservation of PFU in fairly high titers. On the basis of plaque morphology, 10 different phage types, eight from Egyptian soils and two from non-Egyptian soils, were obtained by isolation from single plaques. An additional phage obtained from a culture collection was also used. Serological tests using rabbit antiphage sera suggest the division of the Egyptian phage isolates into three serological groups. Host specificity assay with 31 Azotobacter strains, showed that all strains of A. chroococcum, all but one A. vinelandii strain, and one strain of A. beijerinckii were lysed by at least two out of the eleven phages. None of the strains belonging to A. macrocytogenes, A. agilis and A. insigne were lysed by phage. Electron micrographs showed that the phage have contractile tails. The value of phage typing in the classification of Azotobacter is discussed.     

Effects of land management on the abundance and richness of spiders (Araneae): A meta-analysis

Human land use, through forest management and conversion of natural habitats into agroecosystems, has often resulted in loss of biodiversity. Spiders are important predators in terrestrial ecosystems, biological control agents against pests in agroecosystems and forests, and useful indicators due to their sensibility to changes in habitat structure and microclimate. Effects of land use on spiders have been reviewed several times but existing reviews are narrative and usually focused on one single kind of management. We summarize the impacts of land use on spider abundance and species richness using meta-analysis. The main ecosystems where the effect of management on spiders has been studied were forests, agroecosystems and rangelands (including meadows and grasslands). Although our survey retrieved studies from all parts of the world and climatic zones, a dominance of studies from temperate habitats in Europe and North America was evident. The meta-analysis showed negative effects on spider species richness and abundance for agroecosystems and rangelands, but were less evident for forests. From 10 kinds of land management identified, all but forest plantation showed effects on spider richness or abundance. These land management scenarios affected either species richness (forest fragmentation and logging, farmland abandonment, and miscellaneous management including plowing, cutting and fire), or spider abundance (forest fragmentation, forest fire, conventional farming, insecticides, grazing, and farmland abandonment), but not both. Edge effects had contrasting effects depending on the ecosystem, affecting spider species richness in agroecosystems and abundance in rangelands and forests. Direct destruction of spiders or negative effects on habitat heterogeneity or prey populations were the most likely causes of the negative effects detected.     

Biotic interactions in Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems: Are they a factor?

Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems are noted for their relative simplicity and limited trophic structure. In this context, knowledge of biotic interactions in structuring terrestrial soil communities would seem beneficial from a theoretical perspective as well as from a conservation perspective. Unfortunately, although biotic interactions are generally seen as being insignificant in these unique ecosystems, this view is based upon few explicit studies and very little is known of the role that biotic interactions may play. Accordingly, we review our current understanding of these interactions, including analogues from other appropriate ecosystems. On the basis of this review, we conclude that: (1) Antarctic terrestrial systems are predominantly abiotically-driven systems; and (2) a network of manipulative field and laboratory experiments are needed for establishing any role for biotic interactions in structuring Antarctic soil environments.     

The effects of including marine ecological values in terrestrial reserve planning for a forest-nesting seabird

Theoretical advances in systematic reserve design aim to promote the efficient use of limited conservation resources and to increase the likelihood that reserve networks enhance the persistence of valued species and ecosystems. However, these methods have rarely been applied to species that rely on spatially disjunct habitats. We used the marbled murrelet, a seabird that requires old-growth forest in which to nest and high quality marine habitats in which to forage, as a case study to explore methods of incorporating multiple ecological values into single species spatial reserve design. Specifically, we used the cost function in MARXAN to include the ecological value of marine habitats while identifying spatial solutions for terrestrial nesting habitat reserves. Including marine values influenced terrestrial reserve designs most when terrestrial habitat targets were low and little or none of the target was represented in pre-existing protected areas. Our results suggest that including marine values in the planning process will influence marbled murrelet terrestrial reserve designs most where substantial terrestrial nesting habitat still exists, where new reserves are relatively unconstrained by pre-existing reserves, or when conservation resources only allow the protection of a small fraction of available habitat. This paper presents a novel framework for incorporating multiple measures of ecological value in the spatial reserve design process and should be particularly useful for species that rely on multiple habitats during their life cycle.     

Review of denitrification in tropical and subtropical soils of terrestrial ecosystems

Purpose

Denitrification has been extensively studied in soils from temperate zones in industrialized countries. However, few studies quantifying denitrification rates in soils from tropical and subtropical zones have been reported. Denitrification mechanisms in tropical/subtropical soils may be different from other soils due to their unique soil characteristics. The identification of denitrification in the area is crucial to understand the role of denitrification in the global nitrogen (N) cycle in terrestrial ecosystems and in the interaction between global environmental changes and ecosystem responses.

Materials and methods

We review the existing literature on microbially mediated denitrification in tropical/subtropical soils, attempting to provide a better understanding about and new research directions for denitrification in these regions.

Results and discussion

Tropical and subtropical soils might be characterized by generally lower denitrification capacity than temperate soils, with greater variability due to land use and management practices varying temporally and spatially. Factors that influence soil water content and the nature and rate of carbon (C) and N turnover are the landscape-scale and field-scale controls of denitrification. High redox potential in the field, which is mainly attributed to soil oxide enrichment, may be at least one critical edaphic variable responsible for slow denitrification rates in the humid tropical and subtropical soils. However, soil pH is not responsible for these slow denitrification rates. Organic C mineralization is more important than total N content and C/N in determining denitrification capacity in humid subtropical soils. There is increasing evidence that the ecological consequence of denitrification in tropical and subtropical soils may be different from that of temperate zones. Contribution of denitrification in tropical and subtropical regions to the global climate warming should be considered comprehensively since it could affect other greenhouse gases, such as methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂), and N deposition.

Conclusions

Tropical/subtropical soils have developed several N conservation strategies to prevent N losses via denitrification from the ecosystems. However, the mechanisms involved in the biogeochemical regulation of tropical and subtropical ecosystem responses to environmental changes are largely unknown. These works are important for accurately modeling denitrification and all other simultaneously operating N transformations.     

Production and Emission of Nitrous Oxide and Responsible Microorganisms in Upland Acid Soil in Indonesia

Incubation and field experiments were conducted to determine emission and production of nitrous oxide (N₂O) and responsible microorganisms in an upland acid soil of Indonesia. The results showed that N₂O productions in the soil samples were affected by ammonium and urea amendments compared with control. N₂O production reached the highest peak at the first week then decreased until 4 weeks incubation in the potato and tea soil samples. However, more N₂O production was found in tea soil than potato soil. Pine forest soil produced N₂O more at second week incubation than first week, then decreased until 4 weeks. These results further confirmed that the N₂O emitted in the field, which was higher in tea garden than other fields. The both ammonium and nitrate contents in the tea soil were higher than potato and pine soils. The number of ammonium oxidizers in the pine and potato soils was not significantly different, but it was lower in the tea soil. Number of nitrite oxidizers was almost the same in the potato and tea soils, however it was lower in the pine soil. The number of denitrifiers was 1–3 orders magnitude higher in the tea soil than the potato and pine soils.