The importance of biochar quality and pyrolysis yield for soil carbon sequestration in practice

Biochar is a carbon (C)-rich material produced from biomass by anoxic or oxygen-limited thermal treatment known as pyrolysis. Despite substantial gaseous losses of C during pyrolysis, incorporating biochar in soil has been suggested as an effective long-term option to sequester CO₂ for climate change mitigation, due to the intrinsic stability of biochar C. However, no universally applicable approach that combines biochar quality and pyrolysis yield into an overall metric of C sequestration efficiency has been suggested yet. To ensure safe environmental use of biochar in agricultural soils, the International Biochar Initiative and the European Biochar Certificate have developed guidelines on biochar quality. In both guidelines, the hydrogen-to-organic C (H/C_org) ratio is an important quality criterion widely used as a proxy of biochar stability, which has been recognized also in the new EU regulation 2021/2088. Here, we evaluate the biochar C sequestration efficiency from published data that comply with the biochar quality criteria in the above guidelines, which may regulate future large-scale field application in practice. The sequestration efficiency is calculated from the fraction of biochar C remaining in soil after 100 years (F_perm) and the C-yield of various feedstocks pyrolyzed at different temperatures. Both parameters are expressed as a function of H/C_org. Combining these two metrics is relevant for assessing the mitigation potential of the biochar economy. We find that the C sequestration efficiency for stable biochar is in the range of 25%–50% of feedstock C. It depends on the type of feedstock and is in general a non-linear function of H/C_org. We suggest that for plant-based feedstock, biochar production that achieves H/C_org of 0.38–0.44, corresponding to pyrolysis temperatures of 500–550°C, is the most efficient in terms of soil carbon sequestration. Such biochars reveal an average sequestration efficiency of 41.4% (±4.5%) over 100 years.     

Ecological standardization of soil and soil quality control

Theoretical bases are offered for the ecological soil standardization presuming the scientific substantiating of the allowable ecological state (quality) of the soil and the allowable anthropogenic impact on it. The modern experience of these bases’ application in regulatory-methodological, nature-control, and managerial practices is presented. The criteria are found for determining the levels of the allowable ecological quality of soil and the anthropogenic impact on it. The sources of the anthropogenic impact on the soil are characterized. A unified system of indices of soil quality and anthropogenic impacts and a mechanism for determining the range of the allowable values of these parameters have been developed taking into account the natural conditions and types of land use. Scientific-methodological approaches are proposed that support a certain balance between the allowable ecological status of the soil and the effects on it in connection with the mechanisms of the soil quality control in particular land plots.     

The importance and ecology of yeasts in soil

This review focuses on literature pertaining to the interactions of soil yeasts with biotic and abiotic factors in their environment. Soil yeasts not only affect microbial and plant growth, but may also play a role in soil aggregate formation and maintenance of soil structure. Serving as a nutrient source for bacterial, faunal and protistan predators, soil yeasts contribute to essential ecological processes such as the mineralization of organic material and dissipation of carbon and energy through the soil ecosystem. Some soil yeasts may also play a role in both the nitrogen and sulphur cycles and have the ability to solubilize insoluble phosphates making it more readily available for plants. Recently, the potential of soil yeasts as plant growth promoters and soil conditioners has been studied with the goal of using them in the field of sustainable agriculture.     

国标土样在土壤有效磷含量检测和质控中的应用

定期使用有证标准物质可验证试验数据准确性,以发现操作者、仪器、材料、方法、环境中出现的超限现象,能有效地监控试验过程,提高检测质量。本试验研究了国标土壤对土壤有效磷测定数据进行控制,保证试验数据可靠性。结果表明,除2010月4月27日结果不稳外,其余测定值在16.4～19.8 mg/kg,相对标准偏差(RSD)为6.20%;质控图有93%试验点在上下辅助线内,未发现连续7个点位于中心线同一侧,质控图可靠;同时期相比2011年上半年测得国标土壤有效磷含量高于2010年,数值多稳定在18.3 mg/kg以上,精确度和准确度均以2011年较好。     

The role played by microorganisms in the biogenesis of soil cracks: importance of substrate quantity and quality

The development of cracks in soils has a significant effect on important soil processes such as gaseous diffusion, water flow and root development. It is the heterogeneity and tortuosity of the resulting cracks which are important as they influence and control such processes. The microbial contribution to crack formation was therefore assessed by quantifying the heterogeneity and connectivity of cracks which developed following the addition of substrates differing in quantity and quality to a sandy loam soil. The heterogeneity and connectivity of the cracks was assessed using probability and Monte Carlo techniques respectively, which provided an estimate of how the occurrence of cracks varied with sample area and the nature of the route taken by a random walker in such a space. Increasing the amount of glucose added resulted in significantly (P<0.05) less heterogeneous and less tortuous cracks on subsequent drying of the soil, after the soil had been incubated for 2 weeks at 15°C in a slurried state. The addition of glucose or different forms of cellulose, such as a native pulverised cellulose and a highly crystalline cellulose, generally resulted in significantly (P<0.05) less heterogeneous and less tortuous cracks than those formed in the absence of a substrate addition. However, the addition of carboxymethylcellulose to soil initially prevented crack formation and after a 5 or 15 day incubation period resulted in the formation of cracks which were significantly (P<0.05) more heterogeneous than those generated by unamended soil after equivalent incubation periods. Soil amended with glucose, a water soluble source of carbon, resulted in the formation of cracks which were significantly (P<0.05) less heterogeneous and less tortuous than those generated in soil amended with either pulverised native cellulose or highly crystalline cellulose, both of which are water insoluble sources of carbon. The extent of the heterogeneity or connectivity of the cracks was shown to depend on the recalcitrance of the substrate and the incubation period before the soil slurries were allowed to dry and crack. Microorganisms were thus shown to contribute to the formation of cracks, as well as hindering crack formation, highlighting a dual role as potential degraders, as well as producers, of soil binding agents.     

The preparation of soil thin sections for biological studies

A method is described that permits the preparation of soil thin sections up to 6 × 8 cm in approximately 14 days without any discernable artefact. Soil samples are fixed in buffered glutaraldehyde, dehydrated rapidly in a graded series of acetone: water mixtures and impregnated with a polyester resin. The method effectively preserves biological material, such as delicate protozoan cells and root tissues. A range of stains were tested for staining roots in soil blocks and in soil thin sections.     

The importance of soil carbon and nitrogen for amelioration of acid sulphate soils

When exposed to air and adequate moisture, soils containing sulphides (sulphidic soils with pH > 4) become oxidized and generate sulphuric acid to form ‘sulphuric soils’ (pH < 4). Treatment of this acidity is undertaken by addition of lime. In this study, we investigated the effectiveness of adding plant organic matter, and simple carbon and nitrogen compounds, as alternatives to lime to sulphuric and sulphidic soils. In sulphuric soils under aerobic conditions, organic matter increased pH, the extent depending on the nitrogen content. Lucerne hay, which had the largest nitrogen content, increased the pH from 3.7 to 8.0, while pea straw and wheat straw effected smaller changes, in proportion to their respective nitrogen contents. Lucerne hay also caused the greatest reductions in soil redox potential and sulphate content, consistent with the action of sulphate‐reducing bacteria. Similarly, incorporation of organic matter under aerobic conditions effectively prevented sulphidic soil acidification and reduced the redox potential and sulphate content. The individual effects of carbon and nitrogen compounds were then examined and compared to plant organic material. Glucose was ineffective at both small and large concentrations, while molasses increased the pH slightly to 4.6 and acetate to 5.9. None of these carbon compounds was as effective as complex organic matter. Nitrogen added alone as nitrate or ammonia had little or no effect on pH, whereas organic nitrogen in the form of urea caused the pH to rise to 6.3 and reduced the redox to less than 0 mV but had no significant effect on sulphate content.     

A soil fauna index for assessing soil quality

The characteristics of the faunal community in soil are closely related to soil quality. Using the soil faunal community as an indicator of soil quality is not cost-effective because of the complex taxonomic distinction and identification required, moreover; the power of the assessment is weak in relation to soil function. Recently, a functional method incorporating eco-morphological traits has been proposed, but it depends upon presence/absence data of soil arthropod community exclusively. To overcome the limitation, we designed a novel index using the diversity of the soil faunal community along with its functional traits, and the abundance of its members (Abundance-based Fauna Index, referred as FAI). The FAI method supports both the presence/absence data and its abundance. Using real and simulated data sets with eco-morphological and niche breadth traits, two taxonomic independent functional traits, we tested associations of FAI values with soil quality and found a good relationship. In addition to its usefulness for measuring soil quality, FAI may provide valuable information for linking functional traits of soil fauna and the belowground environmental condition.     

Microbial indicators for soil quality

The living soil is instrumental to key life support functions (LSF) that safeguard life on Earth. The soil microbiome has a main role as a driver of these LSF. Current global developments, like anthropogenic threats to soil (e.g., via intensive agriculture) and climate change, pose a burden on soil functioning. Therefore, it is important to dispose of robust indicators that report on the nature of deleterious changes and thus soil quality. There has been a long debate on the best selection of biological indicators (bioindicators) that report on soil quality. Such indicators should ideally describe organisms with key functions in the system, or with key regulatory/connecting roles (so-called keystone species). However, in the light of the huge functional redundancy in most soil microbiomes, finding specific keystone markers is not a trivial task. The current rapid development of molecular (DNA-based) methods that facilitate deciphering microbiomes with respect to key functions will enable the development of improved criteria by which molecular information can be tuned to yield molecular markers of soil LSF. This review critically examines the current state-of-the-art in molecular marker development and recommends avenues to come to improved future marker systems.     

Three decades of soil microbial biomass studies in Brazilian ecosystems: Lessons learned about soil quality and indications for improving sustainability

Soil microbial biomass plays important roles in nutrient cycling, plant-pathogen suppression, decomposition of residues and degradation of pollutants; therefore, it is often regarded as a good indicator of soil quality. We reviewed more than a hundred studies in which microbial biomass-C (MB-C), microbial quotient (MB-C/TSOC, total soil organic carbon) and metabolic quotient (qCO₂) were evaluated with the objective of understanding MB-C responses to various soil-management practices in Brazilian ecosystems. These practices included tillage systems, crop rotations, pastures, organic farming, inputs of industrial residues and urban sewage sludge, applications of agrochemicals and burning. With a meta-analysis of 233 data points, we confirmed the benefits of no-tillage in preserving MB-C and reducing qCO₂ in comparison to conventional tillage. A large number of studies described increases in MB-C and MB-C/TSOC due to permanent organic farming, also benefits from crop rotations particularly with several species involved, whereas application of agrochemicals and burning severely disturbed soil microbial communities. The MB-C decreased in overgrazed pastures, but increased in pastures rotated with well-managed crops. Responses of MB-C, MB-C/TSOC and qCO₂ to amendment with organic industrial residues varied with residue type, dose applied and soil texture. In conclusion, MB-C and related parameters were, indeed, useful indicators of soil quality in various Brazilian ecosystems. However, direct relationships between MB-C and nutrient-cycling dynamics, microbial diversity and functionality are still unclear. Further studies are needed to develop strategies to maximize beneficial effects of microbial communities on soil fertility and crop productivity.     

Methodologies for interrill soil erosion studies

Due to wide range of experimental techniques reported in the literature for determining interrill erodibility and soil loss values, meaningful comparisons between experiments often cannot be made. Furthermore, inaccurate concepts are developed because erosion processes are dependent upon methodologies. The purpose of this paper is to discuss problems related to both laboratory and field rainfall simulator experiments. Rainfall simulators cannot duplicate a wide range of rainfall intensities and, at the same time, have similar energies as natural rainstorms, unless several different nozzles are used. Rainfall intensity in most simulators is created by varying the frequency of spray oscillation. This intermittent spray characteristic of most simulators, and the constant drop size characteristic of other simulators, greatly affects results. Erosion pan design for laboratory studies and preparation of soil samples placed in the pans also can influence erosion results. We conclude that standardization of rainfall simulator design and test procedures will allow better comparison of erosion results to be made among researchers.     

Aggregate stability kit for soil quality assessments

Aggregate stability affects soil strength and, therefore, the soil's ability to transmit liquids and gases, which are important functions for crop production and ecosystem health. Because aggregate stability is an indicator of vital soil functions, it can be used to assess soil quality. For soil quality assessments, there is a need for a quantitative field method for measuring aggregate stability that is simple to perform, low cost, and available for routine assessments by land managers. A method is presented that follows the commonly used or standard single-sieve wet-sieving method for aggregate stability. A combination of manual sieving and drying apparatus is constructed from a trunk-style tackle box. Sieves are constructed from a 60-mesh screen and PVC reducing adapters. The method requires manual sieving, 30 cycles per minute (0.5 cycles/s) for 3 min. Percent water aggregate stabilities from the proposed manual sieving technique were not significantly different from aggregate stabilities obtained from the mechanical wet sieving technique. The proposed low cost method was able to distinguish differences in aggregate stability caused by differences in soil type and land use. This low cost method provides a tool that can be used in conjunction with other measurements to assess relative differences in soil quality.     

土壤质量指标和评价方法

土壤质量是反映土壤保持生物生产力、环境质量以及动植物健康能力的土壤的内在属性。土壤质量评价是根据土壤内部属性对土壤综合状况进行表达。评价必须确定合适的时间和空间尺度,综合量化分析指标和不可量化的描述性指标。评价方法包括定性评价和定量评价,系统化的定性评价仍有其现实意义。定量评价要选择指标的最小数据集(MDS),采用最小数据集(MDS) 土壤变换函数(PTF)的方法将土壤质量指标和土壤功能相联系,对土壤的各个功能因子进行评价,在此基础上利用各种数学评价方法得到综合的量化土壤质量评价结果。     

Solar-heating soil for control of damping-off diseases

Solar-heating (45–52°C) moist soil under 50μm thick clear plastic sheeting during summer (Jan.–Feb.) significantly reduced pre-emergence damping-off disease of Pinus radiata D. Don (radiata pine) and Eucalyptus obliqua L'Herit (messmate and stringybark) seed, and also post-emergence mortality among P. radiata seedlings.Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands, Fusarium oxysporum Snyder and Hansen, and Pythium sp. could not be re-isolated from artificially inoculated pine roots after exposure to the solar-heating treatment. Natural infectious propagules of P. cinnamomi were also undetectable in solar-heated soil for up to 16 months following treatment, though infectious propagules of Pythium were detected at low level. The treatment also controlled 11 weed species. Solar-heating a potting mixture temporarily suppressed disease incidence in nursery stock, possibly due to an increase in antagonistic microorganisms.Solar-heating moist soil appears to be particularly attractive in forest nursery practice, as it provides a simple, effective, non-toxic and non-polluting technique for control of soil-borne diseases and weed species.     

黑土侵蚀区土壤侵蚀演变规律及对策

土壤侵蚀与气象、地形、地质、植被因素密切相关。本文介绍了黑龙江黑土区降雨量、雨强、坡度、坡长、植被、土壤性能与土壤侵蚀的关系,论述了层状面蚀、雨滴溅蚀、沟壑侵蚀、重力侵蚀、风蚀的演变规律,并提出了防治土壤侵蚀的对策。     

土地质量评估与监测: 土壤科学面临的新挑战

Sustainable land management (SLM)is the key to harmonizing environmetal and ecolgical concerns of society with the economic realities of producing adequate food and fiber of high quality and ensuring a absi minimal quality of life.The aim of SLM is to maintain the integrity of the biophysical land resource base,but it can only be realized if land users understand the impacts of land management options on their lands but also on other off-site areas and can optimize the socioeconomic and environmetal benefits of their choice.To Facilitate this,the Contribution of soil suvery organizations would be through the assessment and monitoring of land quality.Land quality is a measure of the ability of land to perfor specific functions and is derived by an integration of soil survey information with other environmental,and if necessary,socioeconomic information.The desired reliability influences the operational scale of the assessment,Such an assessment would assist in:1) locating homologous areas for research sites or for transferring technologies;2) providing the geographic basis for systems analysis(e.g.modeling);3) serving as a basis for local,natinal and global resource assessment and monitoring;4) providing an ecosystem context for land use,assessments of temporal and spatial variability,and impact of human interventions;5)serving as a framework for more detailed assessment for all levels of interest;and 6) evaluating global issues such as food security,impacts of climate change,biodiversity montoring,and addressing desertification.Based on an evaluation of the progress made in soil resource inventories and considering the demands of the environment focused world,the paper considers the need for counteries to mount such a program.The authors believe that this is the next demand of soil science and that we can fulfill our soical contract by periodically providing such information on the state of a nation‘s land resource.     

Algological and mycological assessments of the soil state in the impact zone of the Kirovo-Chepetsk Chemical Plant

The chemical and microbiological (on the basis of algae and micromycetes) analysis of the soils was carried out in the region of the Kirovo-Chepetsk Chemical Plant. It has been shown that the complex soil contamination resulted in essential changes in the algal-mycological complexes: the species diversity of the phototrophs decreased, nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria practically disappeared from the algocenoses, and melanic forms of fungi dominated in the structure of the micromycetal communities. The higher sensitivity of the mycological indication method to the soil contamination was found in comparison with the methods of biotesting on the basis of protozoa and coliform bacteria.     

Further evidence concerning the importance of soil air-filled porosity,soil organic matter and plants for denitrification

Previous experiments with artificially compacted mixtures of soils derived from two horizons of a mollic luvisol have shown the significance of air-filled porosity, organic C content and presence of roots for denitrification. To test the validity of these results for natural conditions undisturbed soil cores were taken during tillering from fields cropped to wheat. Denitrification was measured at different constant soil moisture levels. The denitrification rates were in agreement with those found in the earlier experiments. In the light of the new data the previously established regression function parameters were only slightly modified. This confirmed our former findings that the effect of low air-filled porosity and high soil organic C on denitrification was greater in cropped than in uncropped soil.