Molecular characterization and determination of antimicrobial resistance of Mycoplasma gallisepticum isolated from chickens

In this study, three consecutive approaches of molecular characterization, determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and antimicrobial tested on Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) isolated from chicken farms were investigated. These approaches were conducted between 2004 and 2005 to 134 MG samples collected from five different regions of the intensive farming area of Thailand. Twenty MG isolates and four reference strains including S6, F, ts-11, and 6/85 were classified according to Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) patterns prior to the antimicrobial tests. These isolates exhibited 5 different genotypes (A-E). Consequently, MG isolates representing each genotype were tested on 11 registered antibiotics. The levels of MIC were determined. Three antibiotics, doxycycline (0.20 microg/ml), tiamulin (0.10 microg/ml), and tylosin (0.33 microg/ml), gave the least MICs among all effective drugs. Break point comparisons of each antimicrobial suggested that the MG isolates were most sensitive to lincomycin, oxytetracycline, tiamulin, and tylosin. Some MG isolates had an intermediate effect on josamycin and were resistant to enrofloxacin and erythromycin. Our results also indicated that MG isolated and collected from the region and nearby districts had similar RAPD patterns showing properties of antimicrobial resistance. The RAPD patterns may imply the frequent use of antibiotics and a resistant strain of MG. This is the first report of genetic characterization using RAPD reflected by the levels of MIC against MG. The information is useful to plan for prophylactic and therapeutic impacts on the poultry industry especially in the area of intensive use of antibiotics.     

Spatial heterogeneity of Escherichia coli DNA fingerprints isolated from cellulitis lesions in chickens

Avian cellulitis in broiler chickens is characterized by subcutaneous lesions that result in economic losses because of the partial or complete condemnation of the carcasses at processing. Escherichia coli is the primary causative agent of this condition. Previous research with a biotyping system found that the E. coli of cellulitis origin were unique to each ranch, suggesting that these E. coli were endemic within the ranch environment. The objective of our study was to analyze the genetic variability of E. coli isolates associated with cellulitis. We analyzed the genetic relatedness of the isolates in relation to the houses, ranches, and complexes in which the broilers were grown. This analysis enabled us to assess the spatial heterogeneity, or genetic diversity on a spatial scale, of the isolates. Forty-nine broilers with cellulitis lesions were necropsied. These broilers came from six houses on four ranches on three complexes that had been placed with chicks from the same hatchery within a 2-wk period. Isolates of E. coli from the lesions were DNA fingerprinted by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Relatedness among isolates was determined with the Dice coefficient and an unweighted pair group method with average linkages cluster analysis. The complexes possessed isolates with a variety of DNA fingerprints, yet each complex appeared to have isolates with a unique set of DNA fingerprints. Isolates from the same complex tended to form clusters with similarity coefficients greater than 90%. Isolates from different complexes were genetically distinct. This heterogeneity at the level of the complex suggests that isolates were not disseminated from a source common to the complexes. The spatial heterogeneity of the E. coli isolates in this study implies an endemic population of cellulitis-associated E. coli exists in the broiler house environment.     

Influence of arrival weight, season and calf supplier on survival in Holstein beef calves on a calf ranch in California, USA

On a yearly basis, large calf ranches rear thousands of neonatal cattle for replacement heifers, veal or dairy beef. Dairy beef ranches obtain bull-calves from multiple sources and with questionable colostrum intake histories. Such ranches accumulate large amounts of data that could be used to help them with calf purchasing and on-farm management practices to avoid losses. Our purpose was to describe some calf purchase factors associated with mortality in neonatal calves raised on a single large calf ranch. Computerized records describing 120,197 bull-calves purchased between January 1997 and November 1998 were used in a survival analysis. Risk factors for mortality within the first 4 weeks after arrival on the ranch included body weight on arrival, month of arrival, and the calf supplier. The strength of the effects was conditional on the week after arrival to the ranch.     

Identification of Escherichia coli recovered from milk of sows with coliform mastitis by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) using standardized reagents

A standardized-reagents commercial kit for random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis was used for typing 58 Escherichia coli strains that were recovered from the milk of sows, having coliform mastitis, within a single swineherd in Sweden. Previously, the 58 E. coli strains were characterized serologically and profiled biochemically. They were also evaluated for their serum resistance and their ability to adhere to fibronectin and bovine fetal fibroblasts. The RAPD analysis was fast, easily performed, and required only a nanogram of DNA. The indistinguishable banding patterns obtained with repeated analyses of 2 isolates from each strain demonstrated that RAPD analysis using standardized beads is a technique that provides reproducible results for typing E. coli strains that cause mastitis in sows. The results of the RAPD analyses demonstrated that E. coli sow mastitis strains are highly variable in serotype, biochemical profiles, virulence factors, and RAPD type, and that all 58 strains can be differentiated by means of the RAPD technique. The strains grouped into 24 RAPD types by combining the results of 2 primers, and into 38 groups by combining the results of serotype and RAPD type. No relationship between serotypes, virulence factors and RAPD types was found.     

Molecular epidemiology of clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from horses in Ireland

Clinical isolates (n = 63) of Pseudomonas aeruginosa obtained from various sites in 63 horses were compared using ERIC2 RAPD PCR to determine their genetic relatedness. Resulting banding patterns (n = 24 genotypes) showed a high degree of genetic heterogeneity amongst all isolates examined, indicating a relative non-clonal relationship between isolates from these patients, employing this genotyping technique. This study characterised 63 clinical isolates into 24 distinct genotypes, with the largest cluster (genotype E) accounting for 10/63 (15.9%) of the isolates. ERIC2 RAPD PCR proved to be a highly discriminatory molecular typing tool of P. aeruginosa in isolates recovered from horses. With the adoption of several controls to aid reproducibility, this technique may be useful as an alternative to PFGE, particularly in epidemiological investigations of outbreaks where speed may be a significant parameter. This is the first report of clonal heterogeneity amongst P. aeruginosa from horses and demonstrated that ERIC RAPD PCR is a rapid method for the examination of this species in horses, which may be useful in outbreak analysis.     

不同地区鸡毒支原体的分离鉴定及药物敏感性研究

【目的】了解中国不同地区鸡毒支原体（Mycoplasma gallisepticum，MG）的流行和耐药情况，为禽支原体病的监测与防控提供科学依据。【方法】在广东、福建和安徽3个省份疑似MG感染的养殖场采集的43份气囊样品中分离培养和纯化MG流行菌株，并对其进行培养特性观察、生化及染色鉴定、血清学特异性鉴定、PCR测序分析、致病性试验和对常见抗菌药物敏感性试验。【结果】分离到3株疑似MG，均可使培养基颜色变黄，在固体培养基上呈典型"煎蛋"样菌落，可发酵葡萄糖，不水解精氨酸，不能利用尿素，符合MG培养特性。姬姆萨染色观察菌体形态、血清学特异性鉴定结果进一步证实分离株为MG。mgc2基因测序结果显示，3株分离株与强毒代表株亲缘关系更近。致病性试验结果显示，3株分离株与MG感染临床症状一致，发病率为70%~90%，致病力较强。药物敏感性试验结果显示，3株分离株均对恩诺沙星、替米考星、土霉素、氟苯尼考耐药，对泰万菌素和沃尼妙林均敏感，对大观霉素、金霉素、泰乐菌素和泰妙菌素的敏感性具有地域差异：福建株对大观霉素表现明显耐药，安徽株对泰妙菌素表现耐药，而广东株对大观霉素、金霉素和泰妙菌素均较敏感。【结论】本试验成功分离到3株MG，致病力较强，且均存在一定程度耐药，对药物的敏感程度有地区性差异，今后仍需加强各地区MG的药物敏感性监测，减少耐药性的产生与扩散。     

Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis genotyping of Salmonella gallinarum and comparison with random amplified polymorphic DNA

Salmonella gallinarum is gram-negative bacteria that cause fowl typhoid (FT) in chickens. Since the first outbreak of FT reported in 1992 in Korea, it has widely spread throughout the country. Today, FT is one of the most devastating diseases of poultry. The aim of the present study was to ascertain a genetic relationship among S. gallinarum isolates collected from different regions of Korea over a 10-year period. We examined a total of 38 isolates of S. gallinarum obtained in 29 regions of Korea from 1992 to 2001 including the 9R vaccine strain and the standard strain of S. gallinarum (ATCC 9184). The PFGE profiles produced 12 different patterns with the XbaI-digestion and 11 different patterns with the SpeI-digestion. The RAPD using URP-6 primers showed eight different genotypes with the same Salmonella isolates. The PFGE patterns of the 9R vaccine strain and ATCC 9184 of S. gallinarum were different from the identical type A, the most common genotype among field isolates in our study. In conclusion, a low genetic heterogeneity was observed among Korean S. gallinarum isolates. In addition, PFGE appeared to be a more accurate and reproducible method for genotyping of S. gallinarum isolates than RAPD.     

Molecular characterization of MG isolates using RAPD and PFGE isolated from chickens in Brazil

In the present study, 27 primers were screened under different cycles by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method. Mathematical models were used for analysis of the genetic relationships among strains, including vaccinal, reference strains and nine field isolates previously characterized as Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG)F by RAPD and pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). The PFGE was considered as laborious, expensive and time-consuming than RAPD method. These methods improved the typeability for epidemiological studies of MG with regard to differentiation from vaccinal and field strains.     

Complementary randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis patterns and primer sets to differentiate Mycoplasma gallisepticum strains.

Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis was used to differentiate 7 strains of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Six commercially available primers or primer combinations were screened for their ability to differentiate vaccine and type strains. Although major and minor bands were produced with each primer, many of the primers were unsuitable for strain differentiation. The use of primer 6 and combined primers 3 and 4 resulted in complementary RAPD banding patterns for each M. gallisepticum strain. Eleven different isolates representing 7 different strains were segregated into 7 different patterns, corresponding to the 7 strains.     

Experimental infection of chickens and turkeys with Mycoplasma gallisepticum reference strain S6 and North Carolina field isolate RAPD type B

During an epidemic of mycoplasmosis in chicken and turkey flocks in North Carolina between 1999 and 2001, isolates of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) from affected flocks were characterized by random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD), and eight distinct RAPD types were identified. MG RAPD type B accounted for more than 90% of the isolates and was associated with moderate-to-severe clinical signs and mortality. The virulence of MG RAPD type B for chickens and turkeys was compared with sham-inoculated negative controls and MG S6 (a virulent strain)-inoculated positive controls. Clinical signs occurred in chickens and turkeys inoculated with either MG RAPD type B or MG S6. However, they were not as frequent or severe as those seen in naturally affected flocks, and there was no mortality in the experimental groups. Based on gross and microscopic findings, MG RAPD type B was equal to or more virulent than MG S6. All MG-inoculated birds were culture and PCR positive at 7 and 14 days postinoculation (PI). Among serological tests, the serum plate agglutination test was positive for the majority of chickens and turkeys (58%-100%) infected with either strain of MG at both 7 and 14 days PI. The hemagglutination inhibition test was negative for all birds at 7 days PI and positive for a few chickens (8%-17%) and several turkey sera (40%-60%) at 14 days PI. Only a single serum was positive by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (an MG S6-infected turkey) at 14 days PI.     

Prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni in ranch mink at pelting: Cultural, serological, and histological evidence of infection

This survey of 500 mink on three Wisconsin ranches at pelting gives an estimate of the prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni in the feces of clinically normal animals. On ranches 1 and 2, which used wet feed, C. jejuni was isolated by colon content culture from 7% and 32% of mink one year, and 43% and 13% the next year; the 200 bile samples tested were culture-negative. On ranch 3, which fed a pelleted ration, the organism was never isolated. Among culture-positive mink tested, 22 of 55 had bacterial agglutination serum titers to homologous and/or heterologous Campylobacter isolates from the ranch of origin. Four of 23 culture-negative animals tested had titers. No histological evidence of inflammatory changes in the lower ileum and/or colon was found, although Campylobacter-like organisms were rarely seen in silver-stained sections from both culture-negative and culture-positive animals. We conclude that the presence of C. jejuni in the mink gut does not necessarily indicate a role in gastrointestinal disease.     

Serologic analysis of isolates of Pasteurella haemolytica and Staphylococcus aureus from mastitic ewes

Milk samples (10 ml) were collected aseptically from infected and healthy mammary glands of 20 range ewes in the early stages of unilateral acute mastitis. The ewes were on 5 different ranches in the Northern Rocky Mountain region of the United States. The samples were plated on tryptose blood agar and examined for bacteria of possible etiologic significance. Twelve of the 20 ewes were infected with Pasteurella haemolytica, 4 ewes with Staphylococcus aureus, and 1 ewe with both bacteria. Twelve of the P haemolytica infections were in pure culture as were 4 S aureus infections. The 13 isolates of P haemolytica represented 6 different serotypes. Isolates of P haemolytica from ewes on the same ranch were as serologically diverse as were isolates from ewes in different herds. The 5 isolates of S aureus were similar antigenically. Bacterial isolates were not obtained from the milk of clinically healthy mammae.     

蠓虫源盖塔病毒(SZC30)结构基因分子生物学特征分析

为了解云南蠓虫源盖塔病毒（GETV） SZC30株分子特征及其与国内外其他媒介和宿主动物中分离病毒的遗传进化关系,本研究采用5对盖塔病毒特异引物对2013年首次在云南省蠓虫中分离的盖塔病毒SZC30株结构基因进行RT-PCR扩增,并对扩增产物进行测序;采用DNAStar软件中SeqMan进行序列拼接,获得SZC30株病毒结构基因序列长3 762 nt,编码衣壳蛋白（C）、E1、E2、E3和6K蛋白,序列长度分别为804、1 317、1 266、192和183 nt,编码蛋白长度分别为268、438、422、64和61个氨基酸。C、E1和E2基因系统进化分析显示,SZC30株与1955-2018年不同地域、宿主分离的27株盖塔病毒分离株形成Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ和Ⅳ 4个进化分支;SZC30株与中国、韩国和日本蚊虫和动物分离株位于Ⅲ进化分支内,核苷酸同源性最高,在98.0%以上,氨基酸同源性在98.9%以上,亲缘关系较近;而与马来西亚、俄罗斯等蚊虫分离株位于不同进化分支,核苷酸同源性低于97.6%,亲缘关系较远;与马来西亚蚊虫分离株（GenBank登录号：AF339484）、中国海南和云南蚊虫分离株（GenBank登录号：EU015061和KY434327）在C、E1和E2蛋白存在31个氨基酸差异位点,而与日本蚊虫分离株（GenBank登录号：LC152056）、中国猪分离株（GenBank登录号：MG865966和MG865969）氨基酸位点无差异,且同源性为100%。SZC30株与27株盖塔病毒在E1、E2蛋白上存在2个潜在糖基化位点和3个跨膜区;T细胞抗原表位分析结果显示,SZC30株与分离自蚊、猪、狐、牛和马等的盖塔病毒分离株均存在表位差异,其中,E1、E2蛋白发现较多表位差异。以上结果提示,蠓虫源盖塔病毒与大多数蚊虫和动物分离毒株同源性高、遗传进化关系近,且氨基酸位点、糖基化位点、跨膜区结构等分子特征相似,提示蠓虫可能作为一种潜在的传播媒介参与了当地盖塔病毒的传播扩散。     

Molecular characterization of Mycoplasma gallisepticum isolates from Jordan

Two groups of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) isolates (n = 24) from Jordan were analyzed by molecular methods and compared with other Middle Eastern isolates, related international isolates, and reference strains. The first group (n = 19) was isolated from July 2004 to January 2005 (isolation period A), and the newer group (n = 5) from June 2007 to April 2008 (isolation period B). The groups of isolates are from chicken flocks from northern Jordan, but are not from the same farms. None of the flocks were vaccinated for MG. Random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis, targeted sequencing of the partial MG cytadhesin 2 (mgc2), and the MG 16S-23S rRNA intergenic spacer region (IGSR) divided the Jordanian isolates into two groups. All of the 19 isolates from time period A, in addition to two isolates from time period B, were indistinguishable from the F strain. Three of five isolates from time period B were characterized as wild types and were indistinguishable from each other. The wild-type field strain was readily distinguished from the F strain. It was 91% and 96.4% similar to the F strain based on Clustal-W alignments of sequences of mgc2 and IGSR, respectively. Sequence similarity of mgc2 gene of the Jordan wild-type strain to isolates from Israel and Egypt ranged from 96.5% to 100%, whereas for IGSR it was 99.4%-100%. We theorize that the F-strain live MG vaccine, commonly used in Jordan prior to 2007, was transmitted to nonvaccinated poultry in the region and was a predominant genotype during time period A.     

Strain typing of Mycoplasma cynos isolates from dogs with respiratory disease

The association of Mycoplasma cynos with canine infectious respiratory disease is increasingly being recognised. This study describes the strain typing of 14 M. cynos isolates cultured from trachea and bronchoalveolar lavage samples of six dogs with respiratory disease, from two separate kennels in the United Kingdom. The genetic similarity of the isolates was investigated using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Most of the isolates from four dogs housed at a re-homing kennel were genetically similar and some isolates from different dogs were indistinguishable by both PFGE and RAPD. These isolates were cultured from dogs with non-overlapping stays in the kennel, which may indicate maintenance of some strains within kennels. A small number of isolates showed much greater genetic heterogeneity and were genetically distinct from the main group of M. cynos strains. There was also a high degree of similarity of the M. cynos type strain (isolated from a dog with respiratory disease in Denmark in 1971) to at least one of the United Kingdom isolates using PFGE analysis, which may suggest possible conservation of pathogenic strains of M. cynos.     

The value of DNA paternity identification in beef cattle: examples from Nevada's free-range ranches

The feasibility and economic value of DNA paternity identification were investigated and illustrated using Nevada beef cattle operations. A panel of 15 microsatellites was genotyped in 2,196 animals from 8 ranches with a total of 31,571 genotypes. Probabilities of exclusion for each marker within ranch and across ranches were computed. Joint probabilities of exclusion for the 15 microsatellites were also determined, resulting in values over 0.99 for any individual ranch and across ranches. Dropping 1 or 2 microsatellites with the lowest probabilities of exclusion resulted in joint probabilities greater than 0.99 and with marginal reduction compared with the probabilities with 15 microsatellites. Formulas for benefit-cost analysis for a DNA paternity identification program in beef cattle were derived. Genotyping 15 microsatellites with 20 calves per sire resulted in benefits of $1.71 and $2.44 per dollar invested at bull culling rates of 0.20 and 0.30, respectively. The breakpoints for the program to be profitable occurred when the ratio of the price of 1 kg of calf liveweight over the cost of genotyping 1 microsatellite was greater than 1.1 for a bull culling rate of 0.30. Benefit-cost analysis was also derived under incomplete DNA paternity identification using a lower number of DNA markers than necessary to achieve joint probabilities of exclusion of 0.99. Approximately a 20% increase in the benefit-cost ratio was achieved using 10 vs. 12 microsatellites with incomplete paternity identification. The greater the number of bulls in the operation, the lower the benefit-cost ratio of the paternity testing program. Low probabilities of exclusion and a high number of bulls in the beef operation reduced the benefit-cost ratio dramatically. The DNA paternity identification programs are feasible and may be profitable for free-range beef cattle operations.     

Molecular heterogeneity in clinical isolates of Malassezia pachydermatis from dogs

Molecular investigation of 16 strains, conventionally identified to be Malassezia pachydermatis, isolated from dogs in Japan was carried out by random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and chitin synthase 2 (CHS2) gene sequence analyses. The RAPD band patterns of 13 clinical isolates were identical to that of standard strain of M. pachydermatis (CBS-1879). The other three clinical isolates were different from the standard strain of M. pachydermatis in RAPD patterns, and two of the three isolates were identical. About 620 bp genomic DNA fragments of the CHS2 gene were amplified from the same 16 clinical isolates of M. pachydermatis by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced. The phylogenetic analysis of the nucleotide sequences of CHS2 gene fragments of the 16 clinical isolates revealed that the 13 strains were genetically very close to the standard strain of M. pachydermatis and the other two isolates were genetically close to the standard strain of M. furfur rather than M. pachydermatis. The remaining one isolate was phylogenetically distinct from all the seven Malassezia species reported so far.     

Differentiation of Australian isolates of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis

Objectives To examine strain variation amongst Australian isolates of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis .
Design Pulsed field gel electrophoresis was optimised for differentiation of M paratuberculosis strains, and this typing technique was then applied to a collection of Australian isolates.
Procedure DNAs from 35 Australian isolates of M para-tuberculosis and a UK reference strain were digested with one or other of three restriction endonucleases. The banding patterns obtained after pulsed field gel electrophoresis of the DNA fragments were compared.
Results The Australian isolates were divided into two groups on the basis of their DNA banding pattern. Both were different from the UK reference strain. Seven isolates from cattle in Victoria and the Northern Territory had the same pattern as five isolates from alpacas in Victoria and Western Australia. Another 20 isolates from cattle in Victoria, Western Australia and the Northern Territory had the same pattern as isolates from two sheep and a goat in New South Wales.
Conclusion Pulsed field gel electrophoresis was a useful tool for strain typing of M paratuberculosis , and could be used to study the transmission of strains in Australia.