Particulate Matter-Induced Inflammation/Oxidative Stress in Macrophages: Fucosterol from Padina boryana as a Potent Protector,Activated via NF-κB/MAPK Pathways and Nrf2/HO-1 Involvement

Fucosterol is a phytosterol that is abundant in marine brown algae and is a renowned secondary metabolite. However, its ability to protect macrophages against particulate matter (PM) has not been clarified with regard to inflammation; thus, this study aimed to illustrate the above. Padina boryana, a brown algae that is widespread in Indo–Pacific waters, was applied in the isolation of fucosterol. Isolation was conducted using silica open columns, while identification was assisted with gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) and NMR. Elevated levels of PM led the research objectives toward the implementation of it as a stimulant. Both inflammation and oxidative stress were caused due the fact of its effect. RAW 264.7 macrophages were used as a model system to evaluate the process. It was apparent that the increased NO production levels, due to the PM, were mediated through the inflammatory mediators, such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1 (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), including prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂)). Further, investigations provided solid evidence regarding the involvement of NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in the process. Oxidative stress/inflammation which are inseparable components of the cellular homeostasis were intersected through the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Conclusively, fucosterol is a potent protector against PM-induced inflammation in macrophages and hence be utilized as natural product secondary metabolite in a sustainable manner.