Growth,feed efficiency and body composition of juvenile cobia (Rachycentron canadum Linnaeus, 1766) fed increasing dietary levels of shrimp protein hydrolysate

A shrimp protein hydrolysate (SPH) containing 894.2 g kg⁻¹ crude protein (CP) and 54.3 g kg⁻¹ total lipids was tested as a partial replacement for fish meal (FM) in diets of juvenile cobia. The effects of increasing dietary levels of SPH on the survival, weight gain (WG), specific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio (FCR), nitrogen retention efficiency (NRE) and daily feed intake (DFI) of cobia with initial body weight of 11.9 g were evaluated. Four isoproteic (from 431.1 to 439.7 g kg⁻¹) and isoenergetic (20 825–21 347 MJ kg⁻¹) diets were formulated to contain 0 (Control), 120, 240 or 360 g kg⁻¹ of dietary CP derived from SPH. Survival, WG, SGR, FCR, NRE and DFI ranged from 90 to 100%, 40.2–56.5 g, 4.7–6.1% day⁻¹, 1.04–1.54, 26.3–44.0% and 4.7–6.0% fish⁻¹ day⁻¹ respectively. Survival and DFI were not affected by the dietary treatments. On the other hand, fish fed the control diet and the one containing 120 g kg⁻¹ SPH had higher WG, SGR and FCR. Nitrogen retention efficiency was significantly higher for fish fed diets 0 and 120. It is concluded that up to 120 g kg⁻¹ of SPH in cobia diets can be used with no significant effects on feed utilization and fish performance.     

Quantitative dietary methionine requirement of juvenile golden pompano Trachinotus ovatus at a constant dietary cystine level

A feeding trial was conducted to determine the dietary methionine requirement of juvenile golden pompano (initial body weight 12.40 ± 0.02 g). Six diets were formulated with six graded levels of methionine (8.6, 9.2, 10.4, 11.5, 13.2 and 14.5 g kg⁻¹). Each diet was randomly assigned to triplicate groups of 20 juvenile fish in seawater floating net cages (1.0 m × 1.0 m × 1.5 m). Fish were fed twice daily (08:30 and 16:30) to apparent satiation for 56 days. Weight gain (WG), specific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio (FCR), feed efficiency (FE), nitrogen retention efficiency (NRE), proximate body composition, morphometry and haematology were significantly (P < 0.05) affected by the dietary methionine levels. WG, SGR and FE increased with increasing levels of methionine up to 13.2 g kg⁻¹ diet (P < 0.05) and remained nearly the same thereafter. NRE also increased with increasing levels of methionine up to 13.2 g kg⁻¹ diet (P < 0.05) and remained nearly the same thereafter. Linear regression analysis on WG and NRE indicated that the recommended optimum dietary methionine levels for optimal growth of juvenile pompano were 10.6 and 12.7 g kg⁻¹ diet, respectively, corresponding to 24.6 and 29.5 g kg⁻¹ dietary protein, respectively, so the level of dietary methionine should be between 10.6 and 12.7 g kg⁻¹ diet, corresponding to 24.6–29.5 g kg⁻¹ dietary protein. Additionally, the estimated requirements for the other essential amino acids were calculated from A/E ratios of whole‐body amino acid profile based on the methionine requirement determined from the present experiment.     

Effect of dietary iron supplement on growth, haematology and microelements of juvenile grouper, Epinephelus coioides

An experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of dietary iron supplement on growth, haematology and microelements of juvenile grouper, Epinephelus coioides. Casein–gelatine‐based diets supplemented with 0, 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 mg kg⁻¹ iron from ferrous sulphate were fed to grouper (mean initial weight: 21.0 ± 0.2 g) for 8 weeks. Weight gain was highest in fish fed the diet supplemented with 100 mg kg⁻¹ iron, intermediate in fish fed diets with 50, 150, 200 and 250 mg kg⁻¹ iron and lowest in fish fed the basal diet. Feed efficiency followed a similar trend except that the lowest value was in fish fed the basal diet and the diet supplemented with 250 mg kg⁻¹ iron. Hepatic iron was highest in fish fed diets supplemented with iron ≥100 mg kg⁻¹, followed by fish fed diet with 50 mg kg⁻¹ iron and lowest in fish fed the basal diet. The whole‐body iron was lowest in fish fed the basal diet but not significantly different from other groups, as judged by anova . Iron supplement to the basal diet had no significant effect on haematological parameters (red blood cell count, haematocrit and haemoglobin), hepatic copper concentration or manganese, zinc concentration in liver and whole body. Broken‐line analysis of hepatic iron indicated that iron supplementation of 100 mg kg⁻¹ satisfied the hepatic iron storage and that further supplementation did not expand the iron status.     

Growth,feed utilization,body composition and swimming performance of giant croaker,Nibea japonica Temminck and Schlegel,fed at different dietary protein and lipid levels

A 50‐day feeding trial was conducted to examine the effects of dietary protein and lipid levels on growth, feed utilization, body composition and swimming performance of giant croaker, Nibea japonica. Fish (initial body weight 44.6 g ind⁻¹) were fed ten test diets which were formulated at 5 crude protein levels (360, 400, 440, 480 and 520 g kg⁻¹) and 2 crude lipid levels (90 and 150 g kg⁻¹). In addition, a raw fish diet (fillet of small yellow croaker) served as the reference. The weight gain (WG) increased, whereas the feed intake (FI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) decreased, with increasing dietary protein level from 360 to 520 g kg⁻¹. At the same dietary protein level, no significant difference was found in the WG between fish fed the diets containing 90 or 150 g kg⁻¹ crude lipid. Fish fed the diet containing 480 g kg⁻¹ crude protein and 90 g kg⁻¹ crude lipid exhibited higher WG, nitrogen retention efficiency (NRE) and energy retention efficiency (ERE) but lower nitrogen wastes output (TNW). At the end of the feeding trial, the hepatosomatic index (HSI) and viscerosomatic index (VSI) decreased, whereas the body protein content increased, with increase in dietary protein level. The body lipid content was higher in fish fed at the 150 g kg⁻¹ lipid level than in fish fed at the 90 g kg⁻¹ lipid level. No significant difference was found in the maximum sustained swimming speed (MSS) between fish fed at different dietary protein and lipid levels. The WG, NRE, ERE and condition factor (CF) were higher, whereas the FI, FCR, HSI, VSI and TNW were lower, in fish fed the raw fish diet than in fish fed the diet containing 480 g kg⁻¹ crude protein and 90 g kg⁻¹ crude lipid. No significant difference was detected in the MSS between fish fed the raw fish diet and diet containing 480 g kg⁻¹ crude protein and 90 g kg⁻¹ crude lipid. The results of this study suggest that the suitable dietary crude protein and crude lipid levels are 480 g kg⁻¹ and 90 g kg⁻¹ for giant croaker reared in net pens.     

Effect of dietary iron levels on growth,body composition and intestinal enzyme activities of juvenile Jian carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Jian)

A 60‐day feeding trial was carried out to investigate the effect of iron on growth, body composition and digestive enzyme activities. Diets with seven levels of iron (53.9, 90.0, 115.6, 146.1, 176.0, 215.8 and 266.0 mg iron kg^?1 diet) were fed to Jian carp (initial weight 11.4 ± 0.0 g). Per cent weight gain (PWG), feed efficiency (FE) and protein efficiency ratio were the lowest in fish fed the basal diet (P < 0.05). Body protein content was increased with the increasing iron levels (P < 0.05), but moisture, lipid and ash of fish were not significantly affected by dietary iron levels (P > 0.05). Activities of trypsin, lipase, α‐amylase, Na⁺, K⁺‐ATPase, alkaline phosphatase and gamma‐glutamyl transpeptidase were improved with increasing dietary iron levels. Serum iron were significantly enhanced with dietary iron levels up to 146.1 mg iron kg^?1 diet, and plateaued. In conclusion, iron improved digestive enzyme activities of juvenile Jian carp and the dietary iron requirement for serum iron of juvenile Jian carp (11.4–64.0 g) was 147.4 mg iron kg^?1 diet with ferrous fumarate as the iron source.     

Dietary selenium requirement for juvenile cobia,Rachycentron canadum L.

A 10‐week feeding trial was conducted to estimate the optimum dietary selenium (Se) requirement for juvenile cobia, Rachycentron canadum L. The basal diet was formulated to contain 50.6% crude protein from vitamin‐free casein, gelatin. A control diet (no added seleno‐dl ‐methionine) and five experimental diets containing 0.20, 0.40, 0.60, 0.80 and 1.00 mg seleno‐dl ‐methionine kg^?1 were prepared. Each diet was randomly fed to triplicate groups of juvenile cobia with initial weight 6.27±0.03 g in a flow‐through system. The Se concentration in rearing water was monitored during the feeding period, and was not detectable. The dietary Se level significantly influenced the survival, specific growth rate (SGR), feed efficiency and the Se concentrations in the whole body and vertebra of cobia. The Se‐dependent glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.119) activity increased with an increase in the dietary Se levels (P<0.05). Hepatic glutathione reductase (EC 1.6.4.2) activity was the highest in fish fed the diet with 0.21 mg Se kg^?1, and declined with an increase in the dietary Se levels. Based on broke‐line regression of SGR, the Se concentration in the whole body and vertebra, the Se requirements of juvenile cobia were 0.788, 0.811 and 0.793 mg Se kg^?1 diet in the form of seleno‐dl ‐methionine respectively.     

Optimum dietary protein and lipid levels for growth of juvenile sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus

A feeding trial of three protein (200, 300 and 400 g kg⁻¹) and two lipid levels (20 and 100 g kg⁻¹) was conducted to determine the proper dietary protein and lipid levels for growth of juvenile sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus. Dietary protein and lipid levels were adjusted by adding with different levels of soybean meal, squid liver oil and soybean oil, respectively. Three replicate groups of sea cucumbers (average weight of 1.3 g) were fed the experimental diets for 12 weeks. At the end of the feeding trial, survival was not affected by dietary protein and lipid levels (P > 0.05). Weight gain (WG) and specific growth rate (SGR) of sea cucumbers were significantly affected by dietary protein (P < 0.006) and lipid levels (P < 0.001). The highest WG and SGR were observed in sea cucumbers fed the 200 and 400 g kg⁻¹ protein diet with 20 g kg⁻¹ lipid (P < 0.05). WG and SGR of sea cucumbers fed the diet containing 20 g kg⁻¹ lipid were higher than those of sea cucumbers fed the 100 g kg⁻¹ lipid diets (P < 0.05) at each dietary protein level. Apparent digestibility coefficients of dry matter, crude protein, carbohydrate and gross energy of sea cucumbers fed the 20 g kg⁻¹ lipid diets were significantly higher than those of the 100 g kg⁻¹ lipid diets at 200 and 400 g kg⁻¹ protein (P < 0.05). Moisture, crude protein, crude lipid and ash contents were not significantly different among the groups. The results of this study indicate that the diet containing 200 g kg⁻¹ protein (170 g kg⁻¹ digestible protein) with 20 g kg⁻¹ lipid (13 g kg⁻¹ digestible lipid) may be sufficient for optimum growth of juvenile sea cucumber.     

Effect of dietary iron levels on growth,iron concentration in tissues,and blood concentration levels of transferrin and hepcidin in bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis)

A 60‐day feeding trial was conducted to estimate the effects of dietary iron (Fe) levels on growth, Fe concentration in the liver, spleen, and blood, and transferrin and hepcidin concentrations in the blood of bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis). The six experimental diets were formulated to contain different Fe levels (0, 43.1, 84.2, 123.3, 162.2 and 203.1 mg/kg of dry diet) using ferrous sulphate (FeSO₄) as the source. The weight gain (WG) and the specific growth ratio (SGR) of A. nobilis fed with a dietary Fe level of 123.3 mg/kg were significantly higher than that of the 0 mg/kg Fe group (p < .05). The results indicated that the growth was affected by dietary Fe levels. Regression analysis of WG and SGR at different levels of dietary Fe suggests that the appropriate dietary requirement of Fe for the bighead carp larvae is 120–134.36 mg/kg. The Fe contents in different tissues were as follows: spleen > liver > whole body. When the Fe dietary content increases to 162.2 mg/kg, the blood concentrations of Fe significantly decreased and thereafter increased, hepcidin significantly decreased and thereafter decreased, and transferrin significantly increased and thereafter decreased. The results indicate that the transferrin blood content significantly increased with decreasing hepcidin of up to 264.63 μg/ml content and thereafter decreased. It could be concluded that after transferrin saturation, hepcidin functions to maintain iron balance in the blood of A. nobilis by decreasing transferrin content.     

Synergistic effects of dietary vitamin E and selenomethionine on growth performance and tissue methylmercury accumulation on mercury‐induced toxicity in juvenile olive flounder,Paralichthys olivaceus (Temminck et Schlegel)

An 8‐week feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the synergistic effects of dietary vitamin E and selenomethionine (SeMet) on induced methylmercury (MeHg) toxicity in juvenile olive flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. Nine semi‐purified diets were formulated to contain three different vitamin E levels as DL‐α‐tocopheryl acetate (0, 100 and 200 mg TAkg^?1 diet) and three different selenium (Se) levels (0, 2 and 4 SeMet mg kg^?1 diet) on the constant mercury toxicity level (20 mg MeHgkg^?1 diet). Nine experimental diets, in a 3² factorial design (E₀Se₀, E₀Se₂, E₀Se₄, E₁₀₀Se₀, E₁₀₀Se₂, E₁₀₀Se₄, E₂₀₀Se₀, E₂₀₀Se₂ and E₂₀₀Se₄), were fed to triplicate groups of fish averaging 2.3 ± 0.04 g (mean ± SD) in the semi‐recirculation system. After 8 weeks of feeding trial, vitamin E and Se showed significant effects on weight gain (WG) of fish (P < 0.05). We found that there was a clear trend of increasing WG with elevating vitamin E and Se levels in the diets. Feed efficiency (FE), specific growth rate (SGR), protein efficiency ratio (PER) and survivability exhibited a similar trend with WG. Both antioxidants had significant interaction effects on FE and PER (P < 0.05). Methylmercury concentrations in fish muscle, liver and kidney decreases in a dose‐dependent manner as dietary vitamin E and Se levels increase. Interestingly, the most significant interactive effects of vitamin E and Se were found in liver tissue for depleting Hg concentrations (P < 0.05). These findings suggest that dietary vitamin E more than 100 mg TA kg^?1 diet with 2 or 4 mg SeMet kg^?1‐supplemented diets could have synergistic effects on growth and liver mercury bioaccumulation on MeHg‐induced toxicity in juvenile olive flounder.     

Effect of supplemental dietary zinc sources on the growth and carbohydrate utilization of tilapia Smith 1840, Oreochromis niloticus × Oreochromis aureus

An 8‐week feeding trial was conducted to investigate the effect of supplemental dietary zinc sources on the growth performance and carbohydrate utilization of juvenile tilapia Smith 1840, Oreochromis niloticus × O. aureus. The goal was to compare the bioavailability of two zinc sources, zinc sulphate (ZnSO₄) or zinc methionine (ZnMet), by using two practical basal diets with 350 g kg^?1 (C350) or 400 g kg^?1 (C400) carbohydrates based on wheat as the carbohydrate source. The results showed that fish fed with a diet supplemented with 60 mg kg^?1 Zn from either ZnSO₄ or ZnMet had a significantly (P < 0.05) greater specific growth rate and protein efficiency ratio than those fed with the diets of ≤30 mg kg^?1 Zn. The composition of tilapia carcass was also found to be influenced by various levels of dietary zinc from the two zinc sources. The G6P‐DH in fish fed with the 20 mg kg^?1 ZnMet diet and the PK levels in fish fed with 20 mg kg^?1 ZnSO₄ and 30 mg kg^?1 ZnMet diet were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than those in fish fed with the C400 diet. The data suggest that supplemental dietary zinc from either ZnMet or ZnSO₄ significantly affects the growth performance and carbohydrate utilization of tilapia.     

Dietary ascorbic acid requirement of cobia,Rachycentron canadum Linneaus

A 10‐week feeding trial was conducted to determine the optimal requirement of cobia (Rachycentron canadum Linneaus) for dietary ascorbic acid (AA). Graded levels of L‐ascorbyl‐2‐polyphosphate (LAPP) were supplemented in basal diet to formulate six semi‐purified diets containing 2.70 (the control diet), 8.47, 28.3, 80.6, 241 and 733 mg AA equivalent kg^?1 diet, respectively. Each diet was randomly fed to triplicate groups of fish in flow‐through plastic tanks (300 L), and each tank was stocked with 25 fish with average initial weight of 4.59 ± 0.36 g. Observed deficiency signs included poor growth, higher mortality and lower feeding rate (FR) in the fish of the control group. Fish fed the control diet had significantly lower weight gain (WG), lower feed efficiency ratio (FER) and lower tissue AA concentrations in fish liver and muscle. With the increase of dietary AA, the survival, WG, FER, hepatic and muscular AA concentrations of cobia significantly increased and then levelled off. The dietary AA requirement of cobia was estimated to be 44.7 mg kg^?1 based on WG, 53.9 mg kg^?1 or 104 mg kg^?1 based on either hepatic or muscular AA concentration, respectively.     

Effect of dietary vitamin B6 on growth,feed utilization,health and non‐specific immune of juvenile Pacific white shrimp,Litopenaeus vannamei

Six diets were formulated with vitamin B₆ levels (2.6, 32.7, 54.8, 90.7, 119.6 and 247.4 mg kg⁻¹, dry diet) to determine the requirement for juvenile Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. Triplicate groups of 40 juvenile shrimp (approximately 1.0 g) were provided four times each day to apparent satiation (8 weeks). Weight gain (WG), specific growth rate, feeding efficiency, protein efficiency ratio (PER) and protein productive value of the shrimp were significantly influenced by the vitamin B₆ levels. No significant differences in whole‐body and muscle composition, except for dry matter and protein contents in whole body. Vitamin B₆ concentration in the hepatopancreas significantly increased with the dietary vitamin B₆ level increasing from 2.6 to 32.7 mg kg⁻¹. High‐density lipoprotein cholesterol in the haemolymph improved with the dietary vitamin B₆ levels increasing from 2.6 to 90.7 mg kg⁻¹ diet and no significant differences in low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol, cholesterol, glucose and total protein concentrations. Aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, superoxide dismutase, catalase and lysozyme in the haemolymph were significantly influenced by dietary vitamin B₆ levels. The optimal dietary vitamin B₆ requirements estimated using a two‐slope broken‐line model based on WG and SGR and an exponential model based on the vitamin B₆ concentration in the hepatopancreas were 110.39, 110.08 and 167.5 mg kg⁻¹, respectively.     

Dietary vitamin E could improve growth performance,lipid peroxidation and non‐specific immune responses for juvenile cobia (Rachycentron canadum)

An 8‐week feeding trial was conducted to establish the dietary vitamin E requirement of juvenile cobia. The basal diet was supplemented with 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 120 mg vitamin E kg^?1 as all‐rac‐α‐tocopheryl acetate. The results indicated that fish fed the diets supplemented vitamin E had significantly higher specific growth rate, protein efficiency ratio, feed efficiency and survival rate than those fed the basal diet. It was further observed that vitamin E concentrations in liver increased significantly when the dietary vitamin E level increased from 13.2 to 124 mg kg^?1. Fish fed the basal diet had significantly higher thiobarbituric acid‐reactive substances concentrations in liver than those fed the diets supplemented vitamin E. Fish fed the diets supplemented with 45.7 and 61.2 mg kg^?1 vitamin E had significantly higher red blood cell and haemoglobin than those fed the basal diet, while fish fed the diets supplemented with 61.2 and 124 mg kg^?1 vitamin E had higher immunoglobulin concentration than those fish fed the basal diet. Lysozyme and superoxide dismutase were significantly influenced by the dietary vitamin E level. The dietary vitamin E requirement of juvenile cobia was established based on second‐order polynomial regression of weight gain and lysozyme to be 78 or 111 mg all‐rac‐α‐tocopheryl acetate kg^?1 diet, respectively.     

Dietary magnesium requirements of juvenile grass carp,Ctenopharyngodon idella

To determine dietary magnesium (Mg) requirements of juvenile grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, magnesium sulphate was added to the basal diet at 0, 150, 300, 600, 1200, 2400 mg Mg kg⁻¹ diet. Each diet was fed to three replicate groups of juvenile grass carp (initial weight: 7.69 ± 0.13 g) in a closed, recirculating rearing system for 76 days. No mortality or nutritional deficiency signs were observed except the growth depression in fish fed the Mg‐deficient diet. Growth performance and activities of serum superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and lysozyme (LSZ) were highest (P <0.05) in fish fed the diet supplemented with 600 mg Mg kg⁻¹. The serum malondialdehyde (MDA) content was higher (P <0.05) in fish fed the diets supplemented with 0 and 150 mg Mg kg⁻¹ than that in fish fed the diets with ≥300 mg Mg kg⁻¹. Mg concentrations both in whole‐body and vertebrae increased with the increase in dietary Mg level up to 300 mg kg⁻¹, whereupon the response reached a plateau. Analysis by second‐order polynomial regression of weight gain, by broken‐line regression of vertebrae Mg concentration and by linear regression of whole‐body Mg retention of fish indicated that the adequate dietary Mg concentration for juvenile grass carp was 713.5, 627.7 and 469.8 mg kg⁻¹ diet, respectively.     

A study on dietary l‐lysine requirement of juvenile yellow catfish Pelteobagrus fulvidraco

An 8‐week feeding trial was conducted to determine lysine requirement of juvenile yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco) by feeding formulated diets containing crystalline l ‐lysine. Six isonitrogenous and isoenergetic diets (405 g kg^?1 protein, 18 kJ g^?1 gloss energy) containing fish meal together with soybean protein concentrate as protein sources and fish oil together with soybean oil as lipid sources were formulated. Crystalline l ‐lysine was added into the six diets to acquire lysine concentrations of 17.3, 21.8, 26.0, 31.3, 35.5 and 41.9 g kg^?1 dry diets, respectively. Mixture of crystalline amino acid was supplemented to simulate the amino acid profile in muscle of yellow catfish. The results indicated that final body weight (FBW), weight gain (WG), specific growth rate (SGR), feed efficiency (FE) and protein efficiency (PE) increased with the increase in dietary lysine level from 17.3 to 31.3 g kg^?1 of diet and then decreased as the dietary lysine levels further increased. No significant difference in survival rate was found among all the dietary treatments. One‐slope, quadratic broken‐line analysis on the basis of SGR showed that the dietary l ‐lysine requirement of juvenile yellow catfish was 33.1 g kg^?1 of dry diet (83.2 g kg^?1 of dietary protein).     

An estimation of dietary iron requirement of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., parr

A study was conducted to determine the dietary iron requirement of fingerling Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. During the first 4 weeks of the experiment, fish with an initial weight of 5 g were fed a casein–gelatine-based purified diet which contained 11 mg iron kg^?1. Thereafter duplicate tanks (200 fish in each) were fed the casein–gelatine purified diets containing supplemental iron levels of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 100, 200 or 400 mg iron kg^?1 (added as FeSO_?4* 7H₂O) for 12 weeks. Weight gain, body length and mortality were monitored. Liver iron and ascorbic acid concentration were analysed in addition to whole-body iron, manganese and zinc concentration. Several haematological parameters were also measured. There were no significant differences in weight gain and survival of salmon fed diets containing different iron levels. Haematological values, hepatic and whole-body iron concentrations were, however, significantly affected by the dietary iron content. Liver vitamin C concentration decreased with increasing dietary iron levels. Dietary supplementation with iron significantly reduced whole-body manganese, but no effect of dietary iron on whole-body zinc was found. Based on haematology and hepatic iron concentration, the iron requirement of Atlantic salmon was determined to be between 60 and 100 mg iron kg¹.     

Establishing an upper level of intake for vitamin A in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) postsmolts

The vitamin A (VA) concentration in salmon aquaculture feeds is varying and may lead to sublethal adverse effects. In this study, 135 g Atlantic salmon postsmolts were given eight diets in duplicates with 6, 12, 26, 55, 82, 112, 360 and 749 mg retinol (ROL) kg⁻¹ for 116 days. Subsequently, fish given 6, 82 and 749 mg ROL kg⁻¹ were transferred to a common net pen and given a standard commercial diet for further 28 weeks. Feed conversion rate, liver functionality and markers of VA homoeostasis were not negatively affected by dietary VA level, but chronic high VA intakes led to adverse effects on growth and bone health. In plasma, there was an antagonistic effect of dietary ROL on circulating 1,25 (OH)₂ vitamin D₃ (calcitriol). Moreover, a dose–response of VA on craniofacial deformities, condition factor and vertebral morphometry and mechanical strength was observed. Vertebral deformities were observed after 28 weeks on a standard diet and not immediately after the 116 days on the experimental diet. Elevated VA is a risk factor for bone deformities, and the dietary intake of VA should not exceed 37 mg ROL kg⁻¹ body weight day⁻¹ in Atlantic salmon postsmolts.     

Growth,feed utilization and body composition of Asian catfish (Pangasius hypophthalmus) fed at different dietary protein and lipid levels

This study examined the effect of dietary protein and lipid levels on growth, feed utilization and body composition of Asian catfish Pangasius hypophthalmus reared in cages. Eight test diets were formulated at four protein (340, 380, 420 and 460 g kg⁻¹ crude protein) and two lipid (50 and 90 g kg⁻¹ crude lipid) levels. Fish (initial weight 4.7 g fish⁻¹) were fed the test diets for 8 weeks. Final body weight, weight gain (WG), feed intake (FI), feed conversion ratio (FCR), contents of crude protein, lipid and energy in whole body were dependent on both dietary protein and lipid levels, while specific growth rate (SGR), hepatosomatic index and body moisture content were dependent on dietary lipid level. The WG and SGR increased with the increase in either dietary protein level (at the same lipid level) or lipid level (at the same protein level). The FI and FCR decreased with the increase in dietary protein level (at the same lipid level) or lipid level (at the same protein level). Protein sparing action occurred in case dietary lipid level increased. Fish fed the diet containing 453 g kg⁻¹ crude protein and 86 g kg⁻¹ lipid had the highest WG and SGR, but the lowest FI and FCR, among the diet treatments. There were no significant differences in the protein retention efficiency (PRE) and energy retention efficiency (ERE) among the diet treatments, although PRE and ERE were relatively high in fish fed the diet containing 453 g kg⁻¹ crude protein and 86 g kg⁻¹ lipid. At the end of the feeding trial, body protein content increased, while body lipid content decreased, with the increase in dietary protein content at the same lipid level. Our results suggest that dietary levels of 450 g kg⁻¹ crude protein and 90 g kg⁻¹ lipid are adequate to support fast growth of P. hypophthalmus reared in cages.     

Iron bioavailability of different sources in juvenile grouper Epinephelus coioides

A 70‐day experiment was implemented to study the iron (Fe) bioavailability of three Fe sources in Epinephelus coioides (initial weight, 12.19 ± 0.14 g). Treatments consisted of 0, 50, 90, 130, 170 and 210 mg supplemental Fe/kg from iron sulphate (FeSO₄), ferric citrate (Fe‐citrate) and hydroxy methionine analogue iron (Fe‐MHA). The results showed that the growth performance was not affected by Fe level regardless of Fe sources. Hepatic catalase activity (CAT), the haematocrit value (Hct), haemoglobin (Hb), mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and Fe content in whole body or liver firstly increased significantly and then plateaued as Fe level increased regardless of the Fe source, except significant decreasing of Hct in 210 mg Fe/kg group from FeSO₄. Manganese (Mn) content decreased significantly and then kept stable in the whole body and liver whatever the source was. The slope‐ratio method using FeSO₄ as the reference and Hb content, CAT activity, body and hepatic Fe concentration as the response parameter showed the average relative bioavailability of Fe‐citrate and Fe‐MHA was 103.25 ± 4.35 (n = 4) and 134.5 ± 15.67 (n = 4), respectively, with the maximum value of Fe‐MHA in any case. In conclusion, Fe‐MHA was the most effective to meet preferable haematological index, CAT activity and mineral deposition, with little difference between Fe‐citrate and FeSO₄, athough Fe levels with different sources failed to influence the growth in grouper.     

Characterization of iron deficiency and the dietary iron requirement of fingerling channel catfish

The present study was conducted to determine the minimum dietary iron (Fe) requirement of fingerling channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus). Purified egg white diets containing supplemental iron (as FeSO₄ · 7 H₂O) levels ranging from 0 to 50 mg/kg were fed to catfish in aquaria for 10 weeks. Catfish fed the basal diet which contained 9.6 mg Fe/kg diet exhibited suppressed growth and feed efficiency, as well as reduced hemoglobin, hematocrit, plasma iron, transferrin saturation and erythrocyte count values. Normal growth and feed efficiency were observed for catfish fed 10 mg or more of supplemental iron/kg; however, 20 mg supplemental iron/kg was required to maintain optimum hematological values. Based on these data, the dietary iron requirement of fingerling channel catfish was determined to be not more than 30 mg Fe/kg diet.