Reliable detection of unevenly distributed Verticillium dahliae in diseased olive trees

Verticillium wilt caused by Verticillium dahliae is one of the most threatening diseases of olive worldwide. For pre‐planting and post‐planting control of verticillium wilt in olive trees, availability of a rapid, reliable and non‐destructive method for detection of V. dahliae is essential. For such a method, suitable and easily performed sampling and efficient processing of samples for extraction of DNA are necessary. In this study, the suitability of young twig and leaf samples of olive trees, which are easy to collect and extract DNA from, were assessed for the detection of V. dahliae in routine procedures. The lower (about 50 cm from the tip) and top parts (about 5 cm from the tip) of twigs, as well as leaves from infected olive trees were screened for V. dahliae infection and distribution using real‐time PCR. The biomass of V. dahliae detected in individual twigs was highly variable, but there was no significant difference between mean quantities of V. dahliae DNA detected in top and lower parts of twigs. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that analysis of combined samples containing DNA extracted from five twigs of an infected tree accurately detected the presence of the pathogen. Similarly, testing combined samples of 5–10 leaves enabled reliable detection of the pathogen in an infected tree. The development of this assay enables reliable detection of V. dahliae in infected olive trees that can aid in management decisions for the implementation of integrated disease management.     

Interactions between Trichoderma harzianum and defoliating Verticillium dahliae in resistant and susceptible wild olive clones

Verticillium wilt (VW) in olive is best managed by an integrated disease management strategy, of which use of host resistance is a key element. The widespread occurrence of a highly virulent defoliating (D) Verticillium dahliae pathotype has jeopardized the use of commercial olive cultivars lacking sufficient resistance to this pathogen. However, the combined use of resistant wild olive rootstocks and Trichoderma spp. effective in the biocontrol of VW can improve the management of VW in olive. In vivo interactions between D V. dahliae and Trichoderma harzianum were studied in olive and wild olive plants displaying different degrees of resistance against this pathogen using confocal microscopy. This multitrophic system included wild olive clones Ac‐4 and Ac‐15, olive cv. Picual, and the fungal fluorescent transformants T. harzianum GFP22 and V. dahliae V138I‐YFP, the latter being obtained in this study. In planta observations indicated that V138I‐YFP colonizes the roots and stems of the olive and wild olive genotypes, and that GFP22 grows endophytically within the roots of them all. YFP fluorescence signal quantifications showed that: (i) the degree of root and stem colonization by the pathogen varied depending upon the susceptibility of the tested wild olive genotype, being higher in Ac‐15 than in Ac‐4 plants; and (ii) treatment with T. harzianum GFP22 reduced the extent of pathogen growth in both clones. Moreover, root colonization by strain GFP22 reduced the percentage of pathogen colonies recovered from stems of olive and wild olive plants.     

Assessment of the effect of surface drip irrigation on Verticillium dahliae propagules differing in persistence in soil and on verticillium wilt of olive

For efficient integrated management of verticillium wilt in olive (VWO), it is important to establish whether irrigation treatments (with Verticillium dahliae‐free water) that mitigate the disease in V. dahliae‐infested soil, also reduce the levels of more and less persistent propagules of the pathogen in the soil. Effects of irrigation on VWO and V. dahliae propagules were evaluated under natural environmental conditions. Potted plants were irrigated (pathogen‐free water) to two ranges of soil water content (RWC; high and low) at three surface drip‐irrigation frequencies (daily, weekly, and daily during some periods and otherwise weekly). VWO and total inoculum density (ID), density of less persistent micropropagules (MpD) and more persistent sclerotia in wet soil (S_wD), and sclerotia density for air‐dried soil (S_dD) were monitored. A logistic model (multiple sigmoid) of disease incidence revealed the lowest parameter values in treatments irrigated daily. Daily frequency of irrigation showed significantly lower disease incidence (39.2%) and disease intensity index (43.9%) and MpD (88.0%) values as areas compared with other frequencies, regardless of the RWC. High RWC significantly reduced (70.8–84.9%) ID, S_wD and S_dD as areas, but significantly increased (18.0%) the incidence of infected plants (IIP), regardless of the irrigation frequency. The disease incidence was not correlated with temperature. Daily irrigation to low RWC mitigated the VWO and the IIP, kept soil to the lowest MpD and resulted in the lowest S_dD level at the end of the trial. Results suggested that less persistent propagules could have played a part in the disease development.     

Variation of pathotypes and races and their correlations with clonal lineages in Verticillium dahliae

Understanding pathogenic variation in plant pathogen populations is key for the development and use of host resistance for managing verticillium wilt diseases. A highly virulent defoliating (D) pathotype in Verticillium dahliae has previously been shown to occur only in one clonal lineage (lineage 1A). By contrast, no clear association has yet been shown for race 1 with clonal lineages. Race 1 carries the effector gene Ave1 and is avirulent on hosts that carry resistance gene Ve1 or its homologues. The hypothesis tested was that race 1 arose once in a single clonal lineage, which might be expected if V. dahliae acquired Ave1 by horizontal gene transfer from plants, as hypothesized previously. In a diverse sample of 195 V. dahliae isolates from nine clonal lineages, all race 1 isolates were present only in lineage 2A. Conversely, all lineage 2A isolates displayed the race 1 phenotype. Moreover, 900‐bp nucleotide sequences from Ave1 were identical among 27 lineage 2A isolates and identical to sequences from other V. dahliae race 1 isolates in GenBank. The finding of race 1 in a single clonal lineage, with identical Ave1 sequences, is consistent with the hypothesis that race 1 arose once in V. dahliae. Molecular markers and virulence assays also confirmed the well‐established finding that the D pathotype is found only in lineage 1A. Pathogenicity assays indicated that cotton and olive isolates of the D pathotype (lineage 1A) were highly virulent on cotton and olive, but had low virulence on tomato.     

Correlation of molecular markers and biological properties in Verticillium dahliae and the possible origins of some isolates

Haploid and amphihaploid Verticillium dahliae isolates were studied using PCR-based molecular markers which: (i) discriminate the defoliating and nondefoliating pathotypes (two primer pairs INTD2f/r and INTND2f/r), and (ii) are species-specific (primer pair 19/22). The results were compared with some known biological and other molecular properties of the isolates. Five discrete sequences of the 19/22 amplicon were found. Sequence 4 was associated with both defoliating isolates from Spain and nondefoliating isolates from Spain and USA; these pathotypes were separated by the primer pairs INTD2f/r and INTND2f/r, but the data showed that the primer espdef01 (derived from the 19/22 amplicon) cannot be used for this purpose. Amplicon sizes and sequences with primers 19/22 divided amphihaploid isolates from crucifers (thought to be interspecific hybrids) into those corresponding to the previously reported α and β groups. The β-group isolates had either sequence 4 or 5 (these two differing by a single base). The distinct amplicon sequence 3 given by the α-group isolates demonstrated that the V. dahliae -like 'parent' of this group was molecularly unlike any haploid isolate yet studied. The overall results are discussed in relation to phytosanitary considerations and the probability of defoliating or crucifer pathotypes arising de novo within Europe, either by selection or by interspecific hybridizations.     

High genotypic and virulence diversity in Ilyonectria liriodendri isolates associated with black foot disease in New Zealand vineyards

A total of 57 Ilyonectria liriodendri isolates were identified by a combination of species‐specific PCR and DNA sequencing from a collection of 174 Ilyonectria‐like isolates recovered from 101 diseased grapevine samples. These samples were representative of the national vineyard, comprising material contributed by 49 grape growers across seven grape growing areas. This species was predominant, representing 33% of the recovered isolates, and has been reported as a major pathogen of grapevines in other countries. The genetic diversity of the 57 New Zealand isolates was compared to that of isolates from Australia and South Africa using universally primed polymerase chain reaction (UP‐PCR). A total of 66 informative loci distinguished 52 genotypes, of which five contained up to four clonal isolates. Four main clades were identified in a neighbour‐joining (NJ) tree. The international isolates (Australia and South Africa) were placed in a clade that did not include New Zealand isolates. There was a high level of intra‐ and inter‐vineyard genetic variation indicating the free movement of isolates between regions. A subset of nine isolates from different branches of the NJ tree produced two vegetative compatibility groups and hyphal fusion was observed between non‐self pairings. Pathogenicity tests using isolates from different genetic groups inoculated onto either detached roots or 1‐year‐old potted vines showed variability in virulence; however, no correlations were detected.     

Phenotypic,molecular and pathogenic characterization of Phlyctema vagabunda,causal agent of olive leprosy

Olive leprosy, caused by the fungus Phlyctema vagabunda, is a classic fruit rot disease widespread in the Mediterranean basin. From 2009 to 2013, new disease symptoms consisting of small circular necrotic leaf lesions, coin branch canker and shoot dieback were observed in Spanish and Portuguese olive orchards showing intense defoliation. Phlyctema‐like anamorphs were consistently isolated from leaves and shoots with symptoms. Representative isolates from affected leaves, shoots and fruits were characterized based on morphology of colonies and conidia, optimum growth temperature and comparison of DNA sequence data from four regions: ITS, tub2, MIT and rpb2. In addition, pathogenicity tests were performed on apple and olive fruits, and on branches and leaves of olive trees. Maximum mycelial growth rate ranged between 0.54 and 0.73 mm per day. Conidia produced on inoculated apple fruits showed slight differences in morphology among the representative fungal isolates evaluated. Phylogenetic analysis clustered all of the Phlyctema‐like isolates in the same clade, identifying them as Phlyctema vagabunda. On fruits, influence of wounding, ripening and cultivar resistance was studied, with cv. Blanqueta being the most susceptible cultivar. On branches, a mycelial‐plug inoculation method reproduced olive leprosy symptoms and caused shoot dieback. On leaves, Koch's postulates were fulfilled and the pathogen caused characteristic necrotic spots and plant defoliation. This is the first time that the pathogenicity of P. vagabunda in olive leaves has been demonstrated.     

Characterization of resistance against the olive‐defoliating Verticillium dahliae pathotype in selected clones of wild olive

Verticillium wilt of olive is best managed by resistant cultivars, but those currently available show incomplete resistance to the defoliating (D) Verticillium dahliae pathotype. Moreover, these cultivars do not satisfy consumers' demand for high yields and oil quality. Highly resistant rootstocks would be of paramount importance for production of agronomically adapted and commercially desirable olive cultivars in D V. dahliae‐infested soils. In this work, resistance to D V. dahliae in wild olive clones Ac‐13, Ac‐18, OutVert and StopVert was assessed by quantifying the fungal DNA along the stem using a highly sensitive real‐time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) protocol and a stem colonization index (SCI) based on isolation of V. dahliae following artificial inoculations under conditions highly conducive for verticillium wilt. Ac‐13, Ac‐18, OutVert and StopVert showed a symptomless reaction to D V. dahliae. The mean amount of D V. dahliaeDNA quantified in stems of the four clones ranged from 3.64 to 28.89 pg/100 ng olive DNA, which was 249 to 1537 times lower than that in susceptible Picual olive. The reduction in the quantitative stem colonization of wild olive clones by D V. dahliae was also indicated by a sharp decrease in the SCI. Overall, there was a pattern of decreasing SCI in acropetal progression along the plant axis, as well as correlation between positive reisolation and quantification of pathogen DNA. The results of this research show that wild olive clones Ac‐13, Ac‐18, OutVert and StopVert have a valuable potential as rootstocks for the management of verticillium wilt in olive.     

Phytophthora oleae sp. nov. causing fruit rot of olive in southern Italy

A homothallic Phytophthora species was found to be consistently associated with a rot of mature fruits of two local cultivars of olive (Olea europaea) in Calabria, southern Italy. The phylogenetic analysis of sequences of the ITS1‐5.8S‐ITS2 region and cox1 gene enabled its identification as a new species of clade 2, with a basal position compared to previously described subclades. The new species is described formally with the epithet Phytophthora oleae, referring to the natural matrix from which it was isolated. A unique combination of molecular and morphological characters clearly separates P. oleae from other already described Phytophthora species. This new species produced semipapillate, occasionally bipapillate, persistent sporangia on simple sympodially branching sporangiophores as well as globose and smooth‐walled oogonia, paragynous antheridia and spherical, plerotic oospores. The pathogenicity of P. oleae was confirmed in inoculation trials on fruits of three olive cultivars, including the two local cultivars from which the pathogen had been isolated.     

Molecular and biological characterization of Cowpea mild mottle virus isolates infecting soybean in Brazil and evidence of recombination

The biological and molecular characterization of six isolates of a new Cowpea mild mottle virus strain (CPMMV; Carlavirus, Betaflexiviridae) are reported. Soybean plants with mosaic and stem necrosis were collected in Bahia, Goiás, Mato Grosso and Minas Gerais states, Brazil. Complete genomes of the CPMMV isolates are 8180–8198 nucleotides (nt) long, excluding the 3′‐polyadenylated tail, and have 67–68% nt sequence identity with a Ghana isolate of CPMMV, the only CPMMV isolate for which the genome has previously been sequenced. The replicase has only 60–61% nt sequence identity with the Ghana CPMMV isolate, and the coat protein (CP) is highly conserved (79% nt sequence identity and 95–96% amino acid sequence identity). The high CP identity and the phylogenetic analyses supported the classification of the Brazilian isolates as CPMMV. Biological and molecular differences with the Ghana CPMMV isolate were found and indicated that the six isolates represent a distinct CPMMV strain denominated as CPMMV‐BR. Furthermore, it is shown that recombination occurred mainly in the polymerase gene, and may occur less frequently in other regions of the CPMMV genome.     

Diversity and pathogenicity of Fusarium graminearum species complex from maize stalk and ear rot strains in northeast China

The Fusarium graminearum species complex (FGSC) is an important group of pathogens distributed in maize‐producing areas worldwide. This study investigated the genetic diversity and pathogenicity of 40 FGSC isolates obtained from stalk rot and ear rot samples collected from 42 locations in northeastern China during 2013 and 2014. A phylogenetic tree of translation elongation factor (EF‐la) sequences designated the 40 isolates as F. graminearum sensu stricto (67.5%) and F. boothii (32.5%). By using inter‐simple sequence repeat analysis (ISSR), it was shown that the isolates were divided into two clades, which corresponded to the species identity of the isolates. However, the isolates from the two different diseases could not be distinguished in pathogenicity. The disease severity index of seedlings inoculated with stalk isolates was slightly higher than that of seedlings inoculated with isolates from infected ears, whereas the pathogenicity of the stalk and ear isolates were identical.     

Variability and selection of verticillium wilt resistant genotypes in cultivated olive and in the Olea genus

Developing verticillium wilt resistant genotypes is currently a major objective in olive breeding. In this study, 6017 genotypes derived from 48 crosses obtained by open pollination and crosses between olive cultivars, wild olive genotypes and other Olea species and Olea europaea subspecies were individually evaluated for verticillium wilt resistance. More than 800 genotypes were identified as resistant to the disease based on the absence of symptoms. High genetic variability and wide segregation in resistance were observed. The inheritance of resistance was studied, and the best parents and crosses to breed resistant genotypes were identified. According to the results, verticillium wilt resistance in olive appears to be a quantitative trait. The results obtained by comparing the level of resistance between different crosses as well as by estimating heritability suggest that it is possible to breed for verticillium wilt resistance in olive.     

Field models for the prediction of leaf infection and latent period of Fusicladium oleagineum on olive based on rain,temperature and relative humidity

Although much is known about the effect of climatic conditions on the development of peacock leaf spot of olive, field‐operational models predicting disease outbreaks are lacking. With the aim of developing such models, a 10‐year survey was conducted to relate leaf infection to climate parameters that can be easily monitored in the field. As outbreaks of disease are known to be linked to rain, models were evaluated for their ability to predict whether infection would occur following a rain event, depending on air temperature and duration of relative humidity above 85%. A total of 134 rain events followed by confirmed leaf infection and 191 rain events not followed by detectable infection were examined. The field data were adequately fitted (both specificity and sensitivity >0·97) with either a multilayer neural network or with two of six tested regression models describing high boundary values of high humidity duration, above which no infection occurred over the temperature range, and low boundary values below which no infection occurred. The data also allowed the selection of a model successfully relating the duration of latent period (time between infection and the first detection of leaf spots) as a function of air temperature after the beginning of rain (R² > 0·98). The predictive abilities of these models were confirmed during 2 years of testing in commercial olive orchards in southern France. They should thus provide useful forecasting tools for the rational application of treatments and foster a reduction in fungicide use against this major disease of olive.     

Pathogenic variation of Mycosphaerella species infecting banana and plantain in Nigeria

Mycosphaerella species that cause the ‘Sigatoka disease complex’ account for significant yield losses in banana and plantain worldwide. Disease surveys were conducted in the humid forest (HF) and derived savanna (DS) agroecological zones from 2004 to 2006 to determine the distribution of the disease and variation among Mycosphaerella species in Nigeria. Disease prevalence and severity were higher in the HF than in the DS zone, but significant (P < 0·001) differences between agroecological zones were only observed for disease severity. A total of 85 isolates of M. fijiensis and 11 isolates of M. eumusae were collected during the survey and used to characterize the pathogenic structure of Mycosphaerella spp. using a putative host differential cultivar set consisting of Calcutta‐4 (resistant), Valery (intermediate) and Agbagba (highly susceptible). Area under disease progress curve (AUDPC) was higher on all cultivars when inoculated with M. eumusae than with M. fijiensis, but significant (P < 0·05) differences between the two species were only observed on Valery. Based on the rank‐sum method, 8·3% of the isolates were classified as highly aggressive and 46·9% were classified as aggressive. About 11·5% of all the isolates were classified as least aggressive, and all of these were M. fijiensis. The majority of M. eumusae isolates (seven out of 11; 64%) were classified as aggressive. A total of nine pathotype clusters were identified using cluster analysis of AUDPC. At least one M. fijiensis isolate was present in all the nine pathotype clusters, while isolates of M. eumusae were present in six of the nine clusters. Isolates in pathotype clusters III and V were the most aggressive, while those in cluster VIII were the least aggressive. Shannon’s index (H) revealed a more diverse Mycosphaerella collection in the DS zone (H = 1·81) than in the HF (H = 1·50) zone, with M. fijiensis being more diverse than M. eumusae. These results describe the current pathotype structure of Mycosphaerella in Nigeria and provide a useful resource that will facilitate screening of newly developed Musa genotypes for resistance against two important leaf spot diseases of banana and plantain.     

Genotypic variation and population structure of Sclerotinia trifoliorum infecting chickpea in California

Sclerotinia trifoliorum, an important pathogen of cool season legumes, displays both homothallism and heterothallism in its life cycle, unique among members of the genus Sclerotinia. Very little is known about its genetic diversity and population structure. A sample of 129 isolates of S. trifoliorum from diseased chickpea in California was investigated for genetic diversity, population differentiation and reproductive mode. Genetic diversity was estimated using mycelial compatibility (MCG) phenotypes, rDNA intron variation, and allelic diversity at seven microsatellite loci. Genetic analysis revealed high levels of genotypic diversity demonstrated by high genotypic richness (0·88). Similarly, high levels of gene diversity (mean expected heterozygosity H_E = 0·68) were observed at the microsatellite loci. Geographic populations of S. trifoliorum were highly admixed as evident from low F_ST values (0–0·11), suggesting high contemporary or historical gene flow. Hierarchical analysis of molecular variance showed that more than 92% of the genetic variation occurred among isolates within populations. Bayesian clustering analysis identified four cryptic genetic populations that were not correlated to geographic location, and index of multilocus association was non‐significant in each of the four genetic populations. However, the presence of identical haplotypes within and among populations indicates clonal reproduction. The high levels of haplotype diversity and population heterogeneity, a lack of correspondence between MCG and microsatellite haplotype, and low levels of population differentiation suggest that populations of S. trifoliorum in chickpea have been undergoing extensive outcrossing and migration events probably shaped by human‐mediated dissemination, the underlying diverse cropping systems, and chickpea disease management practices.     

Pathogenicity of isolates of Magnaporthe spp. from wheat and grasses infecting seedlings and mature wheat plants in Argentina

Wheat blast of wheat (Triticum aestivum), caused by Magnaporthe oryzae pathotype triticum (MoT; anamorph Pyricularia oryzae) is a destructive disease in the South American countries of Brazil, Paraguay and Bolivia. In Argentina, the fungus was recently recorded on wheat and barley plants in the northeast part of the country, Buenos Aires and Corrientes Provinces, with a potential for spreading. This work aimed to study, for the first time, the morphocultural and pathogenic characteristics of Magnaporthe isolates collected from wheat and other herbaceous species in Argentina and three neighbouring countries (Paraguay, Brazil and Bolivia) and determine their aggressiveness on wheat varieties. Statistical differences among isolates, culture media, and development conditions were found for conidia colour, growth rate, size and sporulation rate. Pathogenicity tests performed on seedlings with 19 isolates of Magnaporthe spp. under greenhouse conditions showed a maximum disease severity of 55.3% and 66.7% for varieties BIOINTA 3004 and Baguette 18, respectively. Weed and grass isolates were infectious on wheat, demonstrating their potential epidemiological role on the disease. Spike disease severity was 34.6% for the host × pathogen interaction of BIOINTA 3004 × PY22. Observed symptoms included partial or total spike bleaching, and glume and rachis discolouration. The 1000‐grain weight was significantly reduced to 38.5% and 63.1% for cultivars BIOINTA 3004 and Baguette 18, respectively. The disease affected grain germination, which fell to 65.9% for seeds infected with the PYAR22 isolate. Symptoms observed in infected grains were partial spotting, grain softening, and rot symptoms with the presence of a greyish mould.     

Comparison of genotyping by sequencing and microsatellite markers for unravelling population structure in the clonal fungus Verticillium dahliae

Microsatellite genotyping of a large sample of isolates of Verticillium dahliae from diverse locations recently identified seven distinct genotypic clusters. However, these clusters were not put in the context of phenotypes known to be correlated with clonal lineages in V. dahliae. The objective of this study was to compare clusters defined by microsatellite markers with clonal lineages defined by single‐nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs). Genotyping isolates known to belong to specific clonal lineages (based on SNPs) with microsatellite markers determined the correspondence of clusters and lineages. All but one cluster corresponded to a known clonal lineage, allowing analysis of correlations of phenotypes with microsatellite genotypes from other studies. As shown previously, most race 1 isolates are in lineage 2A, and most isolates with the defoliating pathotype are in lineage 1A. Phylogenetic incompatibility was used to test for recombination or homoplasy caused by hypervariable microsatellite loci; incompatibility was highly correlated with the number of alleles per locus, suggesting that homoplasy caused by parallel evolution of microsatellite alleles is the cause of incompatibility. Microsatellite genotyping of lineage 1A isolates from cotton and olive in Spain over a 29‐year period revealed remarkably little variation; these markers did not mutate enough to provide insight on the spatial and temporal expansion of this clone. Overall, this study showed that microsatellite genotyping can be used to identify clonal lineages in V. dahliae, which has predictive power for inferring phenotypes of phytopathological relevance such as race and pathotype.     

Disruption of Cerevisin via Agrobacterium tumefaciens‐mediated transformation affects microsclerotia formation and virulence of Verticillium dahliae

Agrobacterium tumefaciens‐mediated transformation (ATMT) was used to obtain a large number of Verticillium dahliae (Vd991) T‐DNA insertion mutants that were randomly integrated. Insertion mutants that produced significantly fewer microsclerotia were chosen for further analysis. Mutant T0065 was identified as having the Cerevisin gene interrupted by T‐DNA, and it was named cerevisin. The cerevisin protein showed a high amino acid sequence similarity with the vacuolar protease B. The mutant strain cerevisin displayed decreased production of microsclerotia and conidia, significantly reduced growth rate and reduction in virulence compared to the wild type. Moreover, the composition of secreted proteins differed between the cerevisin mutant and the wild type. Loss of function of Cerevisin decreased secretion of proteins of low molecular weight (14–25 kDa). Upon treatment with the secreted proteins of the mutant, the degree of leaf wilting decreased, indicating that Cerevisin is implicated in production of these proteins, which are putative pathogenicity factors of V. dahliae. The results suggest that Cerevisin is involved in controlling multiple processes of development and metabolism, plays an important role in vegetative growth and microsclerotia formation and affects virulence of V. dahliae.     

Genetic variation and structure in native and invasive Solidago canadensis populations

Solidago canadensis is native to North America, but has become a noxious invasive plant in China. We know only a little about its invasion history and the effects of introductions on its genetic composition. Here, we investigated genetic variation and structure between 15 North American and 13 Chinese populations of S. canadensis using AFLP makers. Four AFLP loci suggested relatively high genetic diversity of this weed and similar genetic variation between the invasive range and the native range. Most genetic variation was within populations across two ranges, but the Chinese range had a higher degree of among‐population variation than the North American range. Multiple tests, including Bayesian assignment, UPGMA analysis, PCoA and analysis of ‘isolation by distance’, showed that the Chinese populations originated from at least two distinct native sources and that secondary introduction or dispersal should be common in China. Also, North American populations were possibly a single genetic group. Overall, S. canadensis in China was probably founded from multiple introductions and then spread through long‐distance dispersal associated with human activities. Genetic variability in the species in the invaded range appears to have favoured establishment and spread and may well provide a challenge to successful control.     

Genetic variation and evolutionary forces shaping Cucumber vein yellowing virus populations: risk of emergence of virulent isolates in Europe

The genetic variation and evolutionary mechanisms shaping Cucumber vein yellowing virus (CVYV) populations were investigated by analysis of nucleotide sequences coding for P1b, P1b/P3 and coat proteins (CP) from isolates collected in different countries. The complete genome sequence of isolate ISM from Israel was also determined and compared to those of isolates Jor from Jordan and ALM32 from Spain. This isolate had overall nucleotide identities of 94·23 and 94·96% with ALM32 and Jor, respectively. Nucleotide variation among isolates was not homogeneously distributed, with the 5′ half of the genome being more variable than the 3′ half. A Bayesian phylogenetic tree of the CP showed that CVYV isolates clustered into two main clades: isolates from the Middle East region (Lebanon, Israel and Jordan) clustered in both clades whereas the isolate from Tunisia clustered in clade I and the European isolates clustered as a homogeneous phylogroup in Clade II. A similar topology was observed for P1b but with incongruences with respect to the CP, suggesting genetic exchange among virus isolates, which were confirmed with recombination algorithms. The low genetic diversity within the European phylogroup with respect to the other isolates, neutralist tests and genetic differentiation analyses suggest that the Middle East region is the cradle of CVYV and that a unique virus introduction event occurred in Europe, where the virus spread rapidly. Taken together, these findings indicate a risk of emergence of virulent CVYV isolates in Europe either through migration from the Middle East or by genetic changes of the European isolates.