Soil properties in forest gaps and under canopy in broad-leaved Pinus koraiensis forests in Changbai Mountainous Region, China

The species composition and diversities, and soil properties under canopy gaps in broad-leaved Pinus koraiensis forests were studied in the Changbai Mountains. The results indicated that the species composition and diversities in gap were different from those under canopy. The Shannon-Wiener index, evenness index, and abundance index in gap were higher than those under canopy in the seedling layer, while the community dominance in the seedling layer increased in closed canopy. The physicochemical properties of soil changed with the change of space and resource availability in gaps. The thickness, standing crop, and water holding capacity of the litter layer under canopy were significantly (p<0.01) higher than those in gap. The content of total nitrogen and total potassium of litter in gap were 10.47% and 20.73% higher than those under canopy, however, the content of total phosphorus and organic carbon under canopy were 15.23% and 12.66% more than those under canopy. The water content of 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm of soil layer in gap were 17.65% and 16.17% more than those under canopy. The soil buck density of 0–10 cm were slightly higher under canopy than that in gaps, but there was no significant difference in the soil buck density of the 10–20 cm soil layer. The soil pH values were 5.80 and 5.85 in gap and under canopy, respectively, and were not significantly different. The content of soil organic matter, total nitrogen, and total potassium in gap were 12.85%, 7.67%, and 2.38% higher than those under canopy. The content of NH₄ ⁺-N, available phosphorus, available potassium, and total phosphorus in soil under canopy were 13.33%, 20.04%, 16.52%, and 4.30% higher than those in gap. __________ Translated from Forest Research, 2006, 19(3): 347–352 [译自: 林业科学研究]     

Correlations between canopy gaps and species diversity in broad-leaved and Korean pine mixed forests

Regeneration of tree species associated with canopy gaps in broad-leaved Korean pine forests was investigated. Species diversity in gaps and under closed canopy was compared, the relationship between biodiversity and gap structure was analyzed. Results indicate that there were significant differences between tree species diversity in gaps and that under canopy (p<0.01). In terms of Shannon-Wiener index, evenness index, and abundance index, the biodiversity in gap community were higher than those under forest canopy in regeneration layer. In terms of Simpson’s dominance index, the dominance of certain species in the regeneration layer increased from gaps to closed canopy (p<0.01). In contrast, trends of biodiversity changes of succession layer in gaps and under closed canopy were opposite. Tree species diversity of different layers reacted directly to the change of gap size class. For example, Shannon-Wiener index and abundance index is higher and Simpson’s dominance index is the lowest in succession layer of medium-size gap (100–250 m²) in the broad-leaved Korean pine forest of Changbai Mountains. Shannon-Wiener index reached the highest in a size of ≥250 m² and <100 m², reached the lowest in a size of 200–250 m² in the regeneration layer. Simpson’s dominance index reached its maximum when the gap size was between 200 and 250 m². Generally, species of different layers reacted differently to the changes of gap size classes. The gap size class with more seedlings did not correspond to size class containing more medium-size trees. Tree species diversity indices in the two layers behaved reciprocally during the development process of forest gaps. __________ Translated from Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 2005, 16(12): 2,236–2,240 [译自: 应用生态学报, 2005, 16(12): 2,236–2,240]     

A pre-harvest method for predicting understory light levels created by artificial canopy gaps

A new method for predicting understory light levels around an artificial canopy gap prior to the selective cutting is presented. In two even-aged coppice stands, hemispherical photographs were taken at a height of 1.3 m, and crowns of each canopy stem on the photographs were identified by field observations. To predict light levels after cutting, we used computerized images of the hemispherical photographs, in which we digitally erased all crowns to be cut (named ‘erasing method’). Light levels were calculated by an analyzing program; HEMIPHOT. Light levels predicted by the ‘erasing method’ were compared with that calculated by the ordinary photograph-analyzing method using photographs taken after the actual cutting. The correlations between the two methods were highly significant in the two stands. The ‘erasing method’ is eminently effective for the prediction of understory light levels in an artificial canopy gap.     

Copper and zinc dynamics in foliar litter during decomposition from gap center to closed canopy in an alpine forest

Forest gap in alpine forests may redistribute the hydrothermal conditions in winter and growing season, which may affect the releases of copper and zinc in foliar litter during decomposition. However, the details of this process are largely unknown. Foliar litters of willow (Salix paraplesia), larch (Larix mastersiana), fir (Abies faxoniana), azalea (Rhododendron lapponicum), birch (Betula albosinensis) and cypress (Sabina saltuaria) were selected in an alpine forest of eastern Tibetan Plateau. The litterbags were placed on the forest floor from gap center, canopy gap edge and expanded gap edge to closed canopy. Zinc and copper contents were studied as litter decomposition proceeded. After one year of decomposition, zinc accumulated in all foliar litters regardless of gap positions, but copper accumulated in the litters of fir, azalea and cypress. Separately, copper was released from all foliar litters in winter, whereas zinc in litters of larch, azalea, birch and cypress was released in winter. Moreover, both copper and zinc accumulated during the growing season regardless of litter species. Nevertheless, higher accumulation rates were observed under closed canopy compared with other gap positions. These results suggest that forest gap slows the releases of copper and zinc in foliar litter during forest regeneration in these cold biomes.     

3种不同林型下蕨类多样性和林冠开阔度的关系

光照和水分对林下植物的分布具有重要作用,浅根系的地生蕨类植物对光照和水分比较敏感,可以作为林下生境变化的指针。研究选取热带雨林、喀斯特森林以及人工橡胶林3种不同的林型,研究林冠开阔度对地生蕨类生物多样性的影响。采用2.5 m×1 m的样方,每个样方10 m的间距比较地生蕨类生物多样性。结果显示,热带雨林和喀斯特森林具有类似的地生蕨类多样性(2.52±1.68,2.47±0.68),两者的多样性指数明显高于人工橡胶林(1.47±0.72,P<0.000 1)。但是热带雨林具有更多的个体总数(2 769)和更高的物种丰富度(3.29±0.04),而同样指标喀斯特森林(319,2.94±0.05)和人工橡胶林(175,2.39±0.09)则相对较低。另外,随着林冠开阔度增加,地生蕨类多样性和丰富度急剧降低。地生蕨类的分布状态取决于上层的林冠开阔度,光照对地生蕨类的生物多样性具有决定性的影响,相对较弱的地表根系缺乏足够的吸水能力,不足以应付强光照带来的蒸腾损失。因此绝大多数的地生蕨类植物在林下空地间采取了避退策略。由于相对较低的林冠开阔度,使得喀斯特森林保存了相对较高的林下生物多样性,它具有重要的生态价值而必须加以保护。     

森林冠层节肢动物取样研究进展

冠层节肢动物的研究是近来生物多样性研究的国际前沿,文章主要介绍了森林冠层节肢动物的取样方法,如烟雾杀虫剂击倒法、取样树叶和小枝、非引诱式捕获器、诱捕器及其它取样法,并指出了各类取样法的优缺点。     

Spatial variation of seed rain and seed banks in gaps of karst forest in the Maolan Nature Reserve, Guizhou Province

Based on an investigation on gaps and non-gap stands of the Maolan National Karst Forest Nature Reserve, Guizhou Province, quantitative characteristics and dynamic changes of seed rain and seed banks in gaps were analyzed. The results show that the total amount of seed rain was 117.4 ± 32.6 seeds/m² during the period of observation. The number of immature seeds was 56.3 ± 10.3 seeds/m², that of mature damaged seeds was 15.7 ± 4.7 seeds/m², and the number of mature germinated seeds was 45.4 ± 8.2 seeds/m². It is suggested that the seed number is rich for gap regeneration. Seed rain in gaps has spatial and temporal heterogeneities which deeply affect regeneration patterns of gap plants. Along a gradient from the gap center to a non-gap stand, seed density in the litter layer, the number of species, and the Shannon-Wiener diversity index were gradually reduced, but these indices increased in the soil. The seed density in the gap center was 2415 ± 639 seeds/m², near the gap center was 2218 ± 421 seeds/m² and at the gap border area 1815 ± 311 seeds/m². This shows that plants in gaps have good latent regeneration potential. In both gaps and non-gap stands, the Jaccard similarity index of seed in litter layer was the largest, second largest at 5–10 cm soil depth, and the least at the 0–5 cm soil layer the index. The Jaccard index between the soil seed bank and the present plant community was large in the litter layer, but decreased with soil depth both in gaps and non-gap stands. The results show that soil seed banks are the main source of gap regeneration in the karst forests of Maolan and contribute significantly to gap regeneration. __________ Translated from Acta Botanica Yunnanica, 2007, 29(3): 327–332 [译自: 云南植物研究]     

Spatial correlation of pit and mound topography with canopy gaps in a virgin mixed beech forest,northern Iran

In a reserved forest parcel in a virgin eastern Hyrcanian mixed beech forest,80 ha was surveyed to determine the pit and mound topography,canopy gaps and dead trees.The aim was to investigate the spatial patterns and correlation of pit and mound features with canopy gaps.Seventy-five canopy gaps and 61 pit and mound features were identified.The univariate first order nearest neighbor(R_CE)and bivariate second order test(Ripley’s K)statistic were applied.R_CE statistics highlighted a general aggregation pattern for canopy gaps and pits and mounds,while pits and mounds alone were more clumped.Distances between canopy gaps were 130 m average,whereas distances between pit and mound features and dead trees were 60 and 78 m,respectively.Spatial positive correlation of canopy gaps with pits and mounds were observed with all distances.The result of spatial correlations between canopy gaps with pits and mounds confirmed that windthrows cause micro successions in fallen tree ecosystem-scale correlated with gap phase dynamics in the forest community-scale.     

适应林业发展新形势创新采伐管理新机制——“十一五”采伐限额将进一步促进我国森林资源的科学经营管理

实行森林采伐限额管理是《森林法》确定的一项重要法律制度,是控制森林资源过量消耗和加强森林科学经营的核心措施和关键手段。本文结合对国务院批准全国“十一五”期间年森林采伐限额文件的学习,阐述了实施采伐限额制度对保障林业又快又好发展中的重要作用,指出了既往采伐限额实施中存在的一些矛盾和问题,分析了“十一五”采伐限额在加强和促进森林科学经营方面的突出特点和主要变化。     

冀北山地落叶松人工林林隙对植物物种多样性的影响

以冀北山地木兰林管局落叶松人工林为研究对象,采用样线与标准地调查相结合的研究方法,通过对林隙与非林隙内植物种类、数量、高度等指标的调查,研究林隙对植物物种多样性的影响。结果表明,林隙内的植物种类、总株数、植物平均高度以及多样性指数均高于非林隙地,林隙促进了草本层的发育,提高了草本植物的多样性;林隙内与非林隙内的灌木种类组成、总株数、物种多样性指数均很相近,林隙没有改变灌木的物种多样性。     

关于改革和完善集体林采伐管理的思考

总结吉林省集体林采伐管理情况及取得的成效,结合集体林权制度改革的深入开展,针对集体林采伐管理面临的主要问题,提出新形势下改革和完善集体林采伐管理的建议和对策     

帽儿山不同森林类型生物多样性恢复效果分析

通过对帽儿山7种典型森林类型(示范区)植被恢复的调查,以生物多样性为研究对象,应用主成分分析、典型相关分析的方法,对各示范区恢复情况进行评分,并分析示范区植被恢复效果与影响因素之间的关系。结果表明:恢复时间、采伐方式对生物多样性的恢复和分布起主导作用,示范区Ⅵ(白桦-水曲柳混交林)营造樟子松与水曲柳带状混交林的恢复效果最好,示范区Ⅶ(白桦-山槐混交林)恢复效果次之。研究结果为森林生物多样性恢复方式的选择提供决策支持。     

Mechanized Direct-Seeding of Native Forests in Xingu,Central Brazil

The Y Ikatu Xingu Campaign brought together indigenous people, farmers, researchers, governmental, and non-governmental organizations seeking riparian forest restoration in the Xingu watershed, in west-central Brazil. Forest restoration is challenging in the region because of scarce nurseries, long distances, and high costs associated with the usual technique of planting nursery-raised seedlings. This article describes mechanized direct seeding and compares it with the planting of seedlings, in terms of cost and tree densities at ages of 0.5 until 5.5 yr after planting. Direct-seeding was mechanized using common agricultural machines designed for sowing cereals or grasses, which were loaded with 200,000 seeds of native trees and 150,000 seeds of annual and sub-perennial legumes, plus 50–150 kg sand ha^?1. The Campaign restored more than 900 ha by direct-seeding and 300 ha by planting seedlings. The great demand for native seeds was met by the Xingu Seed Network, formed by Indians, small landholders, and peasants, which commercialized 98 tons of native seeds and earned US$500,000 since 2006. Direct-seeding costs less per hectare than planting seedlings (US$1,845 ha^?1 against US$5,106 ha^?1), results in higher tree densities (2,500–32,250 trees ha^?1 against 1,500–1,650 trees ha^?1), is more practical, and creates layers of dense vegetation that better resembles natural forest succession.     

基于高保护价值森林理念的森林保护和经营对策

本文介绍了高保护价值森林的概念和内容,将高保护价值森林理念与我国现行的森林保护体系相结合,提出进一步完善森林保护体系的措施和可持续经营对策,在提高林地保护管理水平的基础上,构建国土生态安全体系。     

Forest regeneration in artificial gaps twelve years after canopy opening in Acre State Western Amazon

The main objectives were to study the effect of gap size and canopy openness on the natural regeneration dynamics considering the parameters of sapling growth, recruitment, mortality, density, species composition and above-ground biomass accumulation. The study was carried out in 32 artificial gaps with sizes varying from 100 to 1200 m² and canopy openness from 10 to 45%, from the second to the twelfth year after gap creation. The gap size was measured using the vertical projection of the tree crowns on the ground (Brokaw's definition), and the canopy openness measurement by hemispherical photography. In the first five years, mean sapling growth (0.54 cm year⁻¹), mortality (3.9% year⁻¹) and AGB (26.2 Mg ha⁻¹ or 8.7 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) were significantly higher in the gaps than in the forest understorey (0.17 cm year⁻¹, 1.5% year⁻¹ and −0.59 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ respectively) and positively correlated with gap size and canopy openness. In the same period, recruitment was also significantly higher in the gaps (5.8% year⁻¹) than in the forest understorey (0.4% year⁻¹) but decreased with gap size and negatively correlated with canopy openness. In the first five years, the relative density of pioneer species was higher in the gaps but not significantly correlated with gap size or canopy openness. AGB increased linearly since canopy opening, and twelve years after gap creation it was still higher in larger (121.2 Mg ha⁻¹ or 10.1 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) rather than smaller (62.5 ha⁻¹ or 5.2 ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) gaps. Twelve years after gap creation there were no significant differences in the parameters of sapling growth, recruitment, and mortality which could be attributed to the original gap size and canopy openness.     

Methods for studying treefall gaps: A review

As silvicultural objectives have changed over the last several decades, managers are increasingly designing cutting regimes that mimic natural disturbance with the hopes that such systems will restore forests to a more natural condition while optimizing harvest yield. Treefall gaps, canopy openings caused by the death of one or more trees, are the dominant form of disturbance in many forest systems worldwide. These gaps play an important role in forest ecology by helping to maintain bio- and pedo-diversity, influencing nutrient cycling, and preserving the uneven-age nature of late-successional forests. In gap literature, there are inconsistencies with regard to gap terminology, methods for identifying and studying gaps, and modeling gap disturbances. From the papers reviewed, the size of treefall gaps ranges widely from 10 to >5000 m²; we suggest that the maximum gap size should be set at 1000 m². Larger openings tend to have microclimates and return intervals significantly different than smaller treefall gaps. Two main definitions of treefall gaps exist: canopy gap: a ‘hole’ in the forest through all levels down to an average height of 2 m above ground and extended gap: canopy gap plus the area that extends to the bases of surrounding canopy trees. Although researchers have assumed a variety of gap shapes to simplify measuring gap size, gaps are often irregularly shaped and so we recommend that gap areas and shapes be determined from detailed field measurements. Gap age may be determined from tree ring analysis of released trees in or near the gap edge, the spacing of whorls on released saplings, or from decomposition of gap-making trees. Windthrow is the main cause of canopy gaps in a variety of ecosystems; other causes include insects, diseases, acidic deposition, drought, and climate change. Treefall-gap models have been developed to predict the following processes during gap making or infilling: (i) gap abundance, (ii) forest structure, (iii) spatial and temporal variations in light levels, (iv) canopy dynamics, and (v) soil nutrient and water regimes. We recommend a protocol for gap studies and identify future research topics.     

Effects of gaps on regeneration of woody plants: a meta-analysis

Forest gaps, openings in the canopy caused by death of one or more trees, have a profound effect on forest regeneration and drive the forest growth cycle. It is therefore necessary to understand the effects of forest gaps on regeneration for modern forest management. In order to provide a quantitative assessment of the effects of forest gaps on regen-eration of woody plants, we conducted this review of gap effects on woody plant regeneration on the basis of 527 observations from 42 indi-vidual papers, and reported the results of these data in a meta-analysis. Overall, densities of regenerated woody plants were significantly greater （359%） in forest gaps than on the closed-canopy forest floor. The regen-eration density in gaps of plantation forests was significantly greater （P＆lt;0.05） than that of natural forest because the regeneration in gaps of plan-tation forests was improved by both gap effects and experimental meas-ures. Similarly, in comparison to natural gaps, regeneration was better enhanced in artificial gaps. Regeneration density exhibited a significantly positive correlation with gap size, but a negative correlation with gap age because the gap size decreased with increasing gap age. Shade tolerance of woody plants affected regeneration density in gaps and understory. Average regeneration density of shade-tolerant species exhibited a sig-nificantly positive response to gaps but densities remained lower in total than those of intermediate and shade-intolerant species. Gap effects on regeneration decreased in response to increasing temperature and pre-cipitation because of the limiting effects of lower temperature and moisture on woody plant regeneration. In summary, forest gaps enhance woody plant regeneration, and the effects of gaps varied by forest type, gap characteristics, environmental factors and plant traits. The results of this meta-analysis are useful for better understanding the effects and roles of gaps on forest regeneration and forest management.     

Abundance response of western European forest species along canopy openness and soil pH gradients

In order to better understand the structure and composition of forest plant communities, we aimed to predict the abundance of understory herbaceous species locally at the stand level and according to different environments. For this, we seeked to model species distributions of abundance at a regional scale in relationship with the local stand structure (canopy openness) and regional soil resources (soil pH).Floristic inventories, performed in different light and soil conditions located in 1202 records of north eastern France, were used to analyze the combined effect of canopy openness and soil pH on the abundance of 12 common western European forest species: Anemone nemorosa, Deschampsia flexuosa, Festuca altissima, Hedera helix, Lamium galeobdolon, Lonicera periclymenum, Molinia caerulea, Oxalis acetosella, Pteridium aquilinum, Rubus fruticosus, Rubus idaeus, and Vaccinium myrtillus. Ordinal regression models relating species abundance responses to their environment were developed.For most species (eight out of 12), distribution was significantly affected by canopy openness and soil pH. Differences among low-abundance (i.e. cover <25%) and high-abundance (i.e. cover >25%) responses were noted for 11 species along the canopy openness gradient and four species along the pH gradient. The present study quantifies optimal light and soil nutrient requirements for high-abundance responses and quantifies light and soil nutrients tolerance conditions for low-abundance responses. The combination of both factors highlights the pre-eminence of pH conditions occurrence and canopy openness for species abundance.The models developed by this study may be used to define canopy openness thresholds in function of soil characteristics to control the development of species during forest regeneration. The species-specific reactions on local canopy openness along a regional soil gradient illustrate the need for a species-specific management approach.     

A review of the sampling theory of comprehensive forest resources monitoring

Sampling is a key technique in comprehensive forest resources monitoring. The history of the sampling survey was briefly reviewed and sampling theories were classified and compared in detail. On the basis of that, the application of different sampling methods in comprehensive forest resources monitoring was illustrated in accordance with the sampling classification of Michael Köhl et al. Improvement of the sampling system in China was discussed to meet the new requirements of forest monitoring.     

A new calculation method to estimate forest gap size

The distance and direction coordinates from the center of each canopy gap to its edge in sixteen compass directions were measured in the secondary forests. Total of 21 gaps of different sizes were measured. The gap size was determined using different calculation methods: octagon method (OM), which was applied with two compass directions (OM_1 and OM_2); sixteen-gon method (SM); and elliptical-sector method (ESM), a new calculation method proposed in this work, including 8-elliptical-sector (8ESM) with two different compass directions (8ESM_1 and 8ESM_2) and 16 elliptical sector (16ESM). The results indicated that within the same gap delimitation, the average estimated gap size varied from 122.0 to 164.4 m² with different calculation methods. The estimated area of the same gap among all calculation methods and between pairs exhibited significant differences (p < 0.05). Particularly, the estimated area for the same gap was significantly different between OM_1 and OM_2 (p < 0.005), indicating that the starting direction of the OM significantly affected the gap size. However, there were no significant differences among applications of the new method. When SM is used as a standard, the gap size calculated by OM was 10.0% less but, by ESM, was 11.6% larger. Therefore, the new method is proposed for future research involving the gap size calculation. Finally, we concluded that a comparison of forest gap sizes, particularly using OM, should be conducted when discussing the effects of gaps on forest regeneration and succession. Based on Chinese Journal of Ecology, 2007, 26(3): 455–460