An improved nitrogen difference method for estimating biological nitrogen fixation in legume-based intercropping systems

The nitrogen difference method (NDM) for quantifying N₂ fixation, based on the same amount of soil N exploited by N₂-fixing and non-N₂-fixing plant, may not be suitable to plants with different root traits. We tested the reliability of NDM in legume-based intercropping systems by two field experiments in Northwest China. In experiment 1, faba bean (Vicia faba), pea (Pisum sativum), and soybean (Glycine max) grew solely or intercropped with maize (Zea mays) with two N application rates (0, 225 kg ha^?1). The biomass of faba bean, pea, and maize was significantly increased, whereas that of soybean was decreased when intercropped than solely grown. Aggressivity analyses demonstrate greater N competition ability of faba bean and pea, but not soybean, than maize. An improved NDM (INDM) could mitigate these effects: $ {N_{{\text{fix - int}}}} = \left[ {{N_{{\text{leg - int}}}} + \frac{{1 - x}}{x}{N_{{\text{ref - int}}}} - \frac{{{N_{{\text{ref - sole}}}}}}{x}} \right] + \left[ {{\text{soil}}{N_{{\text{leg - int}}}} + \frac{{1 - x}}{x}{\text{soil}}{N_{{\text{ref - int}}}} - \frac{{{\text{soil}}{N_{{\text{ref - sole}}}}}}{x}} \right] $ , where x and 1???x are planting area of legume and non-legume in the intercropping system. Compared to traditional NDM (TNDM, $ {N_{{\text{fix - int}}}} = \left[ {{N_{{\text{leg - int}}}} - {N_{{\text{ref - sole}}}}} \right] + \left[ {{\text{soil}}{N_{{\text{leg - int}}}} - {\text{soil}}{N_{{\text{ref - sole}}}}} \right] $ ), %N _dfa (N derived from air) by INDM was decreased by 54.3% and 39.8% for faba bean, 44.7% and 5.0% for pea, but increased by 113.5% and 191.0% for soybean at the two N application rates, indicating different %N _dfa quantifications between the two methods. In experiment 2, %N _dfa of sole or intercropped faba bean was quantified by TNDM, INDM, and ¹⁵N natural abundance method (NA). The %N _dfa only by INDM correlated significantly with that from NA. Both interspecific root interactions and N loss affect %N _dfa estimation. Our results suggested that INDM could be more suitable than TNDM for quantifying %N _dfa of a N₂-fixing plant in intercropping systems.     

Effect of cropping systems on nitrogen mineralization in soils

 Understanding the effect of cropping systems on N mineralization in soils is crucial for a better assessment of N fertilizer requirements of crops in order to minimize nitrate contamination of surface and groundwater resources. The effects of crop rotations and N fertilization on N mineralization were studied in soils from two long-term field experiments at the Northeast Research Center and the Clarion-Webster Research Center in Iowa that were initiated in 1979 and 1954, respectively. Surface soil samples were taken in 1996 from plots of corn (Zea mays L.), soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), oats (Avena sativa L.), or meadow (alfalfa) (Medicago sativa L.) that had received 0 or 180 kg N ha^–1 before corn and an annual application of 20 kg P and 56 kg K ha^–1. N mineralization was studied in leaching columns under aerobic conditions at 30  °C for 24 weeks. The results showed that N mineralization was affected by cover crop at the time of sampling. Continuous soybean decreased, whereas inclusion of meadow increased, the amount of cumulative N mineralized. The mineralizable N pool (N _o) varied considerably among the soil samples studied, ranging from 137 mg N kg^–1 soil under continuous soybean to >500 mg N kg^–1 soil under meadow-based rotations, sampled in meadow. The results suggest that the N _o and/or organic N in soils under meadow-based cropping systems contained a higher proportion of active N fractions. Received: 10 February 1999     

The influence of organic nitrogen mineralization on the management of agricultural systems in the UK

Abstract. The understanding of nitrogen mineralization is central to providing good advice to ensure that nitrogen (N), from whatever source, is utilized by crops as efficiently as possible to minimize pollution. We have reviewed how mineralization is accounted for in current advice. It is clear that there is at least a qualitative understanding of the effects of soil and crop management on N mineralization and N supply, which has enabled the development of Codes of Good Agricultural Practice and fertilizer recommendations systems, based on sound scientific principles. However, to refine advice there is a need for a better quantitative understanding. Although soil organic matter (SOM) is a major source of N for crops, we are unable adequately to predict fertilizer requirement as affected by mineralization of SOM. Nitrogen returns from crop residues can vary considerably between fields; the provision of better field specific advice is restricted by our inability accurately to quantify this variability. The qualitative controls on the amount and timing of N release from ploughed grass are known, but better quantification of mineralization/immobilization over both the short- and long-term and better understanding of the relationship with sward age, inputs and management are essential. Much N can also be released from pasture and lost to the environment, especially where long-term leys have been grazed and there is a need to quantify the changing balance of mineralization and immobilization with the age of sward and N input. Whilst the overall principle of cultivation affecting mineralization is well known and appreciated, little is known about the mechanisms and quantification is only possible for a comparison of such extremes as ploughing and direct drilling.     

不同轮作和氮肥分配季节下土壤氮素供应和油菜氮素吸收差异

【目的】土壤氮素供应受到土地利用方式影响,明确土壤氮素供应特性是合理施肥的基础。研究不同轮作方式下油菜季土壤氮素供应特征和油菜氮素吸收规律,可以为油菜氮肥施用提供科学依据。【方法】本试验为同田对比田间试验,采用裂区试验设计,主处理为两种轮作方式,即水旱轮作 (水稻?油菜轮作) 和旱地轮作 (棉花稻?油菜轮作);副处理为氮肥 (N 150 kg/hm2) 施用季节。每种轮作方式下设3个氮肥施用季节处理,分别为:1) 两季均不施氮肥(N_0-0);2) 水稻/棉花季施氮,油菜当季不施氮(N_150-0);3) 水稻/棉花季不施氮,油菜当季施氮(N_0-150)。通过原位矿化培养方法测定油菜不同生育期土壤氮素净矿化量,同时测定油菜在不同生育期内氮素吸收量。【结果】与两季均不施氮相比,油菜季施氮,稻油轮作下土壤氮净矿化累积量显著增加101.2 kg/hm2,油菜氮素吸收增加76.8 kg/hm2;棉油轮作条件下,土壤氮净矿化累积量显著增加了110.0 kg/hm2,油菜氮素吸收增加96.2 kg/hm2。从分配比例上分析,在油菜苗期—薹期,稻油轮作土壤氮素净矿化量占累计矿化量的52.3%,棉油轮作为64.5%,棉油轮作高于稻油轮作;然而在油菜花期—成熟期,稻油轮作土壤氮素净矿化量高于棉油轮作。与土壤氮素净矿化相一致,在油菜苗期—薹期,棉油轮作油菜氮素吸收量比稻油轮作高37.1 kg/hm2,棉油轮作有利于油菜前期氮素吸收;而油菜生长后期稻油轮作比棉油轮作多吸收氮素18.2 kg/hm2。稻油轮作有利于油菜后期氮素吸收。【结论】棉油轮作条件下,残留棉花叶片养分释放快,有利于油菜生长前期 (苗期—薹期) 土壤氮素供应;而稻油轮作条件下,残留水稻根茬养分释放慢则有利于油菜生长后期 (花期—成熟期) 土壤氮素供应。因此棉油轮作有利于油菜前期生长,稻油轮作有利于油菜后期生长。稻油轮作条件下在油菜生长前期可适量增加氮肥供应,后期降低氮肥供应;棉油轮作下在油菜生长前期适量降低氮肥供应,后期增加氮肥供应。     

Potassium budgets in grassland systems as affected by nitrogen and drainage

Abstract. The main inputs, outputs and transfers of potassium (K) in soils and swards under typical south west England conditions were determined during 1999/00 and 2000/01 to establish soil and field gate K budgets under different fertilizer nitrogen (N) (0 and 280 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) and drainage (undrained and drained) treatments. Plots receiving fertilizer N also received farmyard manure (FYM). Potassium soil budgets ranged, on average for the two years, from −5 (+N, drained) to +9 (no N and undrained) kg K ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ and field gate budgets from +23 (+N, drained) to +89 (+N, undrained). The main inputs and outputs to the soil K budgets were fertilizer application (65%) and plant uptake (93%). Animals had a minor effect on K export but a major impact on K recycling. Nitrogen fertilizer application and drainage increased K uptake by the grass and, with it, the efficiency of K used. It also depleted easily available soil K, which could be associated with smaller K losses by leaching.     

Characterization of active nitrogen pools in soils under different cropping systems

 Studies were conducted to evaluate the relationships among different active N pools of organic matter in soils at two long-term cropping systems in Iowa. Results indicated that multi-cropping systems, particularly meadow-based systems, enhanced bioactivities of soils. Mono-cropping systems, particularly soybean, reduced soil microbial biomass and enzyme activities. The mineralizable N pool (potential N mineralization;N _o) was more sensitive to changes in the size of the microbial biomass N (N_mic) than to changes in organic N. One unit change in organic N did not lead to substantial changes in N _o, but 1 unit change in N_mic resulted in three or more units change in N _o. The active N pools and turnover rate were more sensitive to changes in organic C than to changes in microbial biomass C (C_mic). A unit change in organic C resulted in 10.6 units change in N _o, but a unit change in C_mic resulted in only 0.8 unit change in N _o. C_mic or N_mic are better indexes than organic C or N for the estimation of N _o or N availability, because biomass values are more highly correlated with cumulative N mineralized during 24 weeks of incubation, with r values ranging from 0.57 (P<0.001) to 0.88 (P<0.001). Received: 18 October 1999     

Land use affects the distribution of soil inorganic nitrogen in smallholder production systems in Kenya

 We hypothesized that the integration of trees and shrubs in agricultural landscapes can reduce NO₃ ^– leaching and increase utilization of subsoil N. A field survey was conducted on 14 farms on acid soils in the subhumid highlands of Kenya, where there is little use of fertilizers, to determine the effect of vegetation types (VT) on soil NH₄ ⁺ and NO₃ ^– to 4 m depth. The VT included maize (Zea mays) with poor growth and good growth, Markhamia lutea trees scattered in maize, natural weed fallow, banana (Musa spp.), hedgerow, and eucalyptus woodlot. The effect of VT on NH₄ ⁺ was small (<1 mg N kg^–1). NO₃ ^– within a VT was about constant with depth below 0.25 m, but subsoil NO₃ ^– varied greatly among VT. Mean NO₃ ^–-N concentrations at 0.5–4 m depth were low beneath hedgerow and woodlot (<0.2 mg kg^–1), intermediate beneath weed fallow (0.2–0.7 mg kg^–1), banana (0.5–1.0 mg kg^–1) and markhamia (0.5–1.6 mg kg^–1), and high beneath both poor (1.0–2.1 mg kg^–1) and good (1.9–3.1 mg kg^–1) maize. Subsoil NO₃ ^– (0.5–4 m) was agronomically significant after maize harvest with 37 kg N ha^–1 m^–1 depth of subsoil beneath good maize and 27 kg N ha^–1 m^–1 depth beneath poor maize. In contrast, subsoil NO₃ ^– was only 2 kg N ha^–1 m^–1 depth beneath woodlot and hedgerow. These results demonstrate that the integration of perennial vegetation and the rotation of annual and perennial crops can tighten N cycling in agricultural landscapes. Received: 8 July 1999     

华北平原不同种植制度对粮食作物氮素利用和土壤氮库的影响

冬小麦-夏玉米一年两熟是华北平原粮食作物的主要种植制度,存在氮肥利用率低、土壤氮素过量累积问题。为探索华北平原氮素高效利用的适宜种植制度,采用15N示踪技术,基于3 a田间定位试验,对一年两熟冬小麦-夏玉米的常规水氮和优化水氮、两年三熟冬小麦-夏玉米-春玉米与冬小麦-夏大豆-春玉米及一年一熟春玉米3种种植制度的作物产量、15N利用率、氮素去向和土壤氮库表观平衡进行研究。结果表明,两年三熟的冬小麦-夏玉米-春玉米产量为32 248.52 kg/hm2,分别比一年两熟和一年一熟提高22.16%和52.88%;15N利用率为33.36%,比一年一熟提高26.12%。3种植制度的氮肥去向最高为土壤残留,其次为作物吸收和损失,两年三熟冬小麦-夏玉米-春玉米的作物吸氮量最高为151.82 kg/hm2,土壤氮库表观盈余量为21.22 kg/hm2,显著低于其他种植制度。综合分析,冬小麦-夏玉米-春玉米两年三熟在稳产高产和提高氮素利用率上具有可持续的潜力,是华北平原未来较为理想的种植制度。     

不同竞争强度间作体系氮素利用和土壤剖面无机氮分布差异

田间小区试验,研究大麦/玉米间作、小麦/玉米间作和蚕豆/玉米间作及其对应单作体系,在不施氮和施氮225 kg/hm2情况下,对氮素吸收利用效率和土壤剖面无机氮变化的影响。结果表明,作物对养分的竞争能力与其根区土壤无机氮浓度和累积量密切相关。两作物共生期不施氮肥时,0—100 cm土层,土壤剖面无机氮残留量是间作大麦和间作小麦根区分别比间作蚕豆根区减少2032~82和10717~1 kg/hm2;与大麦和小麦间作的玉米根区分别比与蚕豆间作的玉米根区减少931~20和5687~kg/hm2。土壤无机氮累积量受作物类型、种间相互作用强度及实时土壤环境条件影响。种间相互作用提高了间作大麦和小麦的氮素当季回收率,但使与其间作的玉米氮素当季回收率降低。大麦/玉米和小麦/玉米竞争体系在不施氮肥时氮素利用效率最高。施用氮肥使大麦、小麦氮素收获指数降低,玉米氮素收获指数升高,对蚕豆无影响。在选择配对作物时,为获得间作优势要充分考虑作物竞争能力、土壤基础肥力条件、施肥水平及配套栽培措施等。低肥力土壤宜选择豆科/禾本科互惠体系,高肥力土壤宜选择禾本科/禾本科竞争体系。     

氮肥用量和密度对双季稻产量及氮肥利用率的影响

【目的】高量化肥投入不仅不能使作物产量进一步增加,相反还会造成肥料资源的浪费并威胁到生态环境安全,同时导致肥料吸收利用率、农学效率等不断降低。为了明确氮肥用量和移栽密度的相互作用,在田间试验条件下研究了不同氮肥用量和移栽密度组合对江西双季稻产量、产量构成要素及氮肥利用率的影响,以期为双季稻的高产高效栽培技术提供理论基础。【方法】采用裂区试验设计,以氮肥施用量为主区,密度为副区,设4个施氮水平(N 0、135、180和225 kg/hm2,以N0、N135、N180和N225表示)和4种移栽密度(21×104、27×104、33×104、39×104hole/hm2,以D21、D27、D33和D39表示)组合,在水稻成熟期对产量以及产量构成要素进行测定,并分析其吸氮量和氮肥利用率、氮收获指数等指标。【结果】施氮水平和移栽密度对水稻产量具有显著影响;增加移栽密度有助于提高单位面积水稻的有效穗数、稻谷产量和地上部吸氮量;在高施氮量下,水稻氮素积累总量增加,而氮素吸收利用率(REN)、氮素偏生产力(PFPN)、氮素生理利用率(PEN)、氮素内在养分效率(IEN)和氮素收获指数(NHI)降低;氮素农学效率(AEN)则是先升高后降低,而产量并未增加。与其它处理组合相比,施氮量为180 kg/hm2和39×104hole/hm2密度的组合产量最高,早稻和晚稻分别为9823.0和11354.7 kg/hm2,此时早稻和晚稻的氮素吸收率分别为42.4%和47.5%。当施氮量超过180 kg/hm2时产量则不再增加,但产量随着移栽密度的增加而显著增加。【结论】合理氮肥用量和移栽密度可以显著增加水稻单位面积的有效穗数和氮累积量,进而增加水稻产量和氮肥利用率,建议在江西双季稻栽培中采用施氮量为N 180 kg/hm2,栽培密度39×104hole/hm2的组合。     

15N studies on the transfer of legume-fixed nitrogen to associated cereals in intercropping systems

Summary An attempt has been made to estimate quantitatively the amount of N fixed by legume and transferred to the cereal in association in intercropping systems of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) — gram (Cicer arietinum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) —cowpea (Vigna unguiculate L.) by labelling soil and fertilizer nitrogen with ¹⁵N. The intercropped legumes have been found to fix significantly higher amounts of N as compared with legumes in sole cropping if the intercropped cereal-legume received the same dose of fertilizer N as the sole cereal crop. But when half of the dose of the fertilizer N applied to sole cereal crop was received by intercropped plants, the amount of N fixed by legumes in association with cereals was significantly less than that fixed by sole legumes. Under field conditions 28% of the total N uptake by maize (21.2 kg N ha^–1) was of atmospheric origin and was obtained by transfer of fixed N by cowpea grown in association with maize. Under greenhouse conditions gram and summer and monsoon season cowpea have been found to contribute 14%–20%, 16% and 32% of the total N uptake by associated wheat and summer and monsoon maize crops, respectively. Inoculation of cowpea seeds with Rhizobium increased both the amount of N fixed by cowpea and transferred to maize in intercropping system.     

晋西南褐土上小麦苜蓿套作对土壤氮素及植物吸氮的影响

研究冬小麦和苜蓿不同种植模式在不同生长期内土壤氮素的变化特征,以期为粮草混播种植模式提供参考依据。依托 2014年在晋西南开展的田间试验,于 2017和 2018年研究了小麦单播、苜蓿单播和小麦苜蓿混播的作物产量以及土壤剖面氮素特征。结果表明:(1)两个试验年份内小麦苜蓿混播增加了作物生物量且小麦植株茎叶和籽粒氮含量均高于小麦单播;相比任一单作,小麦苜蓿混播显著提高了作物植株氮积累总量。(2)种植方式影响表层(0～ 30 cm)土壤硝态氮含量,3月春季返青时苜蓿单播高于小麦单播和混播处理,6月麦收时小麦单播和混播均高于苜蓿单播;苜蓿单独生长期(10月)200 cm深土壤剖面硝态氮含量依次为小麦单播 >混播 >苜蓿单播。不同生长时期小麦单播硝态氮随土壤剖面垂直淋失并于土壤深层大量累积,而小麦苜蓿混播后缓解了硝态氮的垂直淋失现象。(3)小麦返青时 0～ 30 cm土层苜蓿单播土壤铵态氮含量略高于小麦单播和混播,小麦地休耕苜蓿单独生长期 200 cm深小麦单播铵态氮含量低于苜蓿单播和混播。(4)越冬期(前一年 10月～ 3月)小麦苜蓿混播土壤无机氮得到了累积,小麦苜蓿共生期(3～ 6月)土壤无机氮处于消耗阶段,麦收后苜蓿单独生长期(6～ 10月)无机氮又得到了补充。     

Winter wheat fertilizer nitrogen use efficiency in grain and forage production systems

Abstract

Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is known to be less than fifty percent in winter wheat grain production systems. This study was conducted to determine potential differences in NUE when winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is grown strictly for forage or grain. The effects of different nitrogen rates on plant N concentrations at different growth stages and on grain yield were investigated in two existing long‐term winter wheat experiments near Stillwater (Experiment 222) and Lahoma (Experiment 502), OK. At both locations in all years, total N uptake was greater when wheat forage was harvested twice (Feekes 6 and flowering) compared to total N uptake when wheat was grown only for grain. Percent N content immediately following flowering was much lower compared to percent N in the forage harvested prior to flowering, indicating relatively large losses of N after flowering. Averaged over locations and years, at the 90 kg N ha^?1 rate, wheat produced for forage had much higher NUE (82%) compared with grain production systems (30%). While gaseous N loss was not measured in this trial, the higher NUE values found in the forage production systems were attributed to harvesting prior to anthesis and the time when plant N losses are known to be greater.     

Free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria in temperate cropping systems: Influence of nitrogen source

Sustainable cropping systems rely on a minimum of external inputs. In these systems N is largely acquired in animal manures and leguminous green manures. Little is known of how these organic forms of N fertilizer influence the presence and activity of free-living N₂-fixing bacteria. High concentrations of inorganic N in soil inhibit N₂-fixation in cyanobacteria and Azotobacter spp. It is likely that manure and fertilizer applications would result in concentrations of inorganic N capable of inhibiting N₂ fixation and, ultimately, the presence of these organisms. We investigated the effect of synthetic and organic N fertilizer sources on the populations and N₂-fixation potential of free-living N₂-fixing bacteria in the Farming Systems Trial at the Rodale Research Institute. Field plots received the following N treatments prior to corn (Zea mays L.) production: (1) Legume rotations and green manures supplying about 165 kg N ha^-1; (2) beef cattle manure applied at a rate of 220 kg N ha^-1 (plus 60 kg N ha^-1 from 1994 hay plow-down); or (3) fertilizer N (urea and NH₄NO₃) applied at a rate of 145 kg N ha^-1. Soil samples were collected at two depths from corn plots four times during the growing season, and analyzed for soil moisture, soil pH, numbers of N₂-fixing cyanobacteria and Azotobacter spp., extractable NH _inf4 ^sup+ and NO _inf3 ^sup- , and potentially mineralizable N. Soil samples collected in mid-July were analyzed for nitrogenase activity (by C₂H₂ reduction) and total C and N. Populations of Azotobacter spp. and cyanobacteria were influenced only slightly by treatment; however, cyanobacteria species composition was notably influenced by treatment. Nitrogenase activity in surface soils was greatest in legume-N plots and in subsurface plots levels were greatest in fertilizer-N plots. Populations and activity of free-living N-fixing bacteria appeared to be somewhat reduced in all plots as a result of low soil pH levels and high concentrations of inorganic N across all treatments. Annual applications of N to all plots resulted in high levels of potentially mineralizable N that in turn may have reduced non-symbiotic N₂-fixation in all plots.     

氮肥运筹对稻茬小麦土壤硝态氮含量时空分布和氮素利用的影响

研究了不同氮肥运筹对土壤硝态氮时空分布及小麦氮肥利用效率的影响。结果表明,小麦氮素利用效率随施氮量的增加而显著降低,增加追肥比例提高了产量和氮肥利用效率,品种间趋势一致。0～60 cm土层土壤硝态氮含量冬前最高,随着生育进程而逐渐降低。随施氮量增加土壤硝态氮含量升高,特别是下层土壤硝态氮含量在施氮处理下更为明显。从播种至成熟,不施氮处理土壤氮素出现了表观亏缺,施氮处理均表现氮素盈余,且随施氮量的增加而增加。因此,在小麦生产中应避免在播种时一次性大量施用氮肥,而分期施肥有利于小麦吸收利用,并且可以减少深层土壤硝态氮的累积。     

Changes in the nitrogen localized in the lamellae systems and stroma of rice chloroplast accompanying the stages of growth

The change in the nitrogen localized in the lamellae systems and stroma region of the rice chloroplast was pursued throughout the stages of growth and, further, the relationship between the composition of the chloroplast and leaf N content was examined. A common trend accompanying the stages of growth is recognized: that in the early stages of growth the amount of nitrogen existing as a form of stroma N is larger than that of lamellae N. Thereafter, stroma N tends to decrease in relation to lamellae N and finally, lamellae N becomes a dominant nitrogenous fraction in the chloroplast. The change in the composition of the chloroplast seems to be brought about by a change in the nitrogen metabolism of the chloroplast by which the distribution of absorbed nitrogen among the nitrogenous fractions of the chloroplast differs.     

Seasonal nitrogen dynamics in lowland rice cropping systems in inland valleys of northern Ghana

Farmers in the inland valleys of northern Ghana are challenged with nitrogen (N) deficiency as a major production constraint of rainfed lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.). With extremely low use of external inputs, there is a need to efficiently use the systems' internal resources such as native soil N. Largest soil nitrate‐N losses are expected to occur during the transition between the dry and wet season (DWT) when the soil aeration status changes from aerobic to anaerobic conditions. Technical options avoiding the build‐up of nitrate are expected to reduce N losses and may thus enhance the yield of rice. A field study in the moist savanna zone of Ghana assessed the in situ mineralization of native soil N, the contribution of nitrate to the valley bottom by sub‐surface flow from adjacent slopes, and the effects of crop and land management options during DWT on seasonal soil N_min dynamics and the yield of lowland rice. Large amounts of nitrate accumulated during DWT with a peak of 58 kg ha⁻¹ in lowland soils, of which 32 kg ha⁻¹ were contributed from the adjacent upland slope. Most of this nitrate disappeared at the onset of the wet season, possibly by leaching and denitrification upon soil flooding. While the incorporation of rice straw (temporary immobilization of soil N in the microbial biomass) had little effect on soil N conservation, growing a crop during DWT conserved 22–27 kg of soil N ha⁻¹ in the biomass and Crotalaria juncea supplied an additional 43 kg N ha⁻¹ from biological N₂ fixation. Farmers' practice of bare fallow during DWT resulted in the lowest rice grain yield that increased from 1.3 (2.2) to 3.9 t ha⁻¹ in case of the transition‐season legume. Growing a pre‐rice legume during DWT appears a promising option to manage N and increase lowland rice yields in the inland valleys of northern Ghana.     

Seasonal soil nitrogen dynamics in rice‐wheat cropping systems of Nepal

The rice‐wheat annual double cropping system occupies some 0.5 million ha in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal. Alternating soil drying and wetting cycles characterize the 6–10 weeks long dry‐to‐wet season transition period (DWT) after wheat harvesting and before wetland rice transplanting. Mineral fertilizer use in the predominant smallholder agriculture is low and crops rely largely on native soil N for their nutrition. Changes in soil aeration status during DWT are likely to stimulate soil N losses. The effect of management options that avoid the nitrate build‐up in soils during DWT by N immobilization in plant or microbial biomass was studied under controlled conditions in a greenhouse (2001/2002) and validated under field conditions in Nepal in 2002. In potted soil in the greenhouse, the gradual increase in soil moisture resulted in a nitrate N peak of 20 mg (kg soil)^–1 that rapidly declined as soil moisture levels exceeded 40 % water‐filled pore space (equiv. 75 % field capacity). Similarly, the maximum soil nitrate build‐up of 40 kg N ha^–1 under field conditions was followed by its near complete disappearance with soil moisture levels exceeding 46 % water‐filled pore space at the onset of the monsoon rains. Incorporation of wheat straw and/or N uptake by green manure crops reduced nitrate accumulation in the soil to < 5 mg N kg^–1 in pots and < 30 kg N ha^–1 in the field (temporary N immobilization), thus reducing the risk for N losses to occur. This “saved” N benefited the subsequent crop of lowland rice with increases in N accumulation from 130 mg pot^–1 (bare soil) to 185 mg pot^–1 (green manure plus wheat straw) and corresponding grain yield increases from 1.7 Mg ha^–1 to 3.6 Mg ha^–1 in the field. While benefits from improved soil N management on lowland rice are obvious, possible carry‐over effects on wheat and the feasibility of proposed options at the farm level require further studies.     

Soil nitrogen availability as affected by fallow-maize systems on two soils in Kenya

Simple methods for the measurement of nitrogen (N) availability are needed to assess the effect of low-input, organically based land management systems on the N supply of tropical soils. Our objectives were to determine the effect of contrasting land-use systems (LUS) on soil N availability and to identify measures of N availability that correlated with maize (Zea mays L.) grain yield. The LUS at the two sites in Kenya involved growth of a maize crop following 17 months of either: (1) Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. tree growth (sesbania fallow), (2) natural regrowth of vegetation without cultivation (natural fallow), (3) three crops of unfertilized maize (maize monoculture), or (4) bare uncultivated soil (bare fallow). Soil was collected before the post-fallow maize crop was sown. The LUS had no effect on total soil N or amount of N in the heavy fraction soil organic matter (SOM) (>150 μm, >1.37 Mg m^–3). Sesbania and natural fallows, as compared to maize monoculture, increased the N in light fraction SOM (>150 μm, <1.13Mgm^–3), N in intermediate fraction SOM (>150 μm, 1.13 to 1.37 Mg m^–3), ammonium-N and aerobic N mineralization at a depth of 0–15 cm. Maize yields were highest following the sesbania fallow. Nitrate-N, inorganic-N (ammonium plus nitrate) and anaerobic N mineralization correlated with maize grain yield at both sites. The relationship between maize yield and pre-season nitrate-N improved when the depth of soil sampling was increased to 1 m at one site (an Alfisol), but did not improve at the site with anion adsorption in the subsoil (an Oxisol). The sesbania fallow was more effective than the natural fallow in increasing available soil N. Maize yield was better related to pre-season nitrate than N in size-density fractions of SOM. Received: 5 May 1997