耕作侵蚀研究项目进展

土壤侵蚀是全球性的严重环境问题，而农耕地则是全球土壤侵蚀最严重的地区。农地上存在的水力等侵蚀早已被研究者认识到，并且已进行了大量的研究，但农地上存在的另一种侵蚀，也是从根本上导致农地土壤退化及产生严重水土流失的侵蚀，却在以往的土壤侵蚀研究中被大大地忽视，这就是耕作侵蚀。 　　耕作侵蚀是土壤物质在耕作机具的作用下发生分散、搬运、沉积的过程。在耕作侵蚀过程中，土壤物质主要在农地内发生再分布，在坡地上，这种再分布则主要表现为坡面土壤的从上向下运动。 　　耕作侵蚀作为一种新近认识到的重要侵蚀过程，已引起国际上的广泛关注。耕作侵蚀研究也已在各大洲迅速开展起来。1997年起，欧共体将耕作侵蚀列为大型研究项目，组织了7个国家的科学家协作攻关，研究范围包括到全部欧共体国家；1997年7月在加拿大多伦多（Toronto）举行了第1次耕作侵蚀国际会议；1999年4月在比利时鲁汶（Leuven）举行了第2次耕作侵蚀国际会议；2001年8月将在英国埃克塞特（Exeter）再次举行关于耕作侵蚀影响的重要国际会议。 　　我国是一个幅员辽阔，农业人口众多，耕种历史悠久的农业大国，坡耕地面积大，尤其与西方发达国家相比，坡耕地普遍较短，较陡，较崎岖，且各地的耕作机具与耕作方式差异较大，因此，耕作侵蚀是在我国广泛存在、形式多样的一种重要类型的土壤侵蚀。为了认识我国坡耕地的耕作侵蚀规律，进而发展科学的坡耕地保护性耕作技术，我们从1999年开始，在我国黄土高原开展了耕作侵蚀研究。 　　我们在主持的国家自然科学基金项目“黄土地区耕作侵蚀评价”（1999—2001）、中国科学院水土保持研究所知识创新工程项目课题“耕作侵蚀过程与模拟”（1999—）及陕西省人事厅留学回国人员科技活动择优资助项目“农地耕作侵蚀研究”（2000—2002）的资助下，通过前两年的研究，已获得了黄土地区耕作侵蚀过程中的土壤再分布规律、黄土地区耕作侵蚀模型，黄土地区耕作侵蚀强度及其空间分布特征，以及黄土地区耕作侵蚀在总土壤侵蚀中的重要性及其空间变化规律。目前，我们正在对该地区耕作侵蚀其它方面的内容进行研究，各个项目进展顺利。 (王占礼，中国科学院 水利部 水土保持研究所， 陕西 杨凌 712100)     

中国特色保护性耕作技术

国外多年的保护性耕作实践表明,旱地保护性耕作能减少土壤风蚀水蚀,抑制沙尘暴。项目研究目的是检验保护性耕作技术在我国的适应性、应采取的工艺体系及机具。从1991年开始,中国农业大学和山西省农机局等合作,开始农艺农机结合的保护性耕作系统试验,10年试验表明,保护性耕作不仅减少水土流失,而且增产增收。通过改进保护性耕作工艺,开发研制中小型保护性耕作机具,形成了中国特色的保护性耕作技术。主要特色在于用小型机具在小地块上实现保护性耕作、以及能在贫瘠的土地上获得较高产量,从而满足我国既要保护环境又要提高产量的要求。研究表明,我国北方自然条件、种植制度、经济水平等差别较大,在保护性耕作推广中需要分区采用不同的技术体系。     

王家沟流域水土流失的数学模型及数值模拟

对王家沟流域整个水土流失过程数学模型的建立及计算程序的编制,实现了对流域整个水土流失过程的数值模拟。通过有限的野外实验研究来校正模型中的参数。通过改变模型中的参数和输入值,可以模拟预测不同条件下的水土流失情况,有助于揭示水土流失因子之间的相互作用机制,探讨不同耕作方式和水保措施下水土流失的规律,为水土流失防治、减轻地质灾害、合理利用耕地和保护生态环境提供科学依据。     

改进WHCNS模型模拟耕作方式对作物生长和水分利用效率的影响

耕作改变了土壤物理特性,进而影响了作物生长和水分利用,定量研究不同耕作方式下的农田土壤水分动态与作物生长过程是制定合理耕作制度的基础。该研究在土壤水热碳氮模拟模型（Soil Water Heat Carbon Nitrogen Simulator,WHCNS）的基础上耦合了EPIC模型的土壤耕作模块,构建了适用于不同耕作方式的土壤水热碳氮过程模拟模型。利用华北平原南部河南商丘试验站2015-2017年实测的不同耕作方式下（深耕、免耕和轮耕）的土体储水量、叶面积指数、地上部干物质质量和产量数据对改进后的WHCNS模型进行了校验和模拟效果评价,并模拟分析了不同耕作方式对冬小麦和夏玉米农田蒸散量、作物产量和水分利用效率的影响。结果表明,所有处理的土体储水量、叶面积指数和地上部干物质质量模拟值与实测值的相对均方根误差均小于30%,一致性指数均大于等于0.90,纳什系数均大于等于0.58,决定系数均大于等于0.90,作物产量模拟值与实测值的决定系数达到0.99。两季冬小麦,与深耕和免耕相比,轮耕的蒸散量分别降低了8.8%～10.8%和13.8%～21.0%,水分利用效率分别提高了6.7%～9.4%和15.7%～24.9%。两季夏玉米,与深耕和轮耕相比,免耕的蒸散量分别降低了12.5%～12.9%和20.7%～22.2%,水分利用效率分别提高了13.4%～15.2%和29.1%～31.3%。耕作方式对产量的影响并不明显。总体而言,改进后的WHCNS模型可以较好地模拟华北平原不同耕作方式下土壤水分与作物生长的动态过程。     

耕作土壤动力学的三维离散元建模和仿真方案策划

提出了采用基于颗粒接触力学原理的离散元法对耕作土壤动力学问题进行数值模拟的新思路。介绍了若干可供选择的适合不同土壤条件的颗粒作用模型，包括无粘连/粘连干颗粒模型和牛顿流体/非牛顿流体湿颗粒模型，后者是作者与合作者们近年来所致力于的离散元建模方面的新成果。讨论了用离散元法进行土壤动力学仿真的可行性和若干关键技术问题及对策。指出本方案的实施将更新对耕作过程的力学机理的认识，发展土壤动力学理论，促进耕作机械设计的科学化、合理化。     

基于人工神经网络的坡面土壤侵蚀研究

 基于坡面土壤侵蚀产沙的复杂非线性特性,引用3层前馈型BP网络建模方法,对不同耕作措施坡面土壤侵蚀产沙进行模拟,模型输入层变量数为5个,分别代表降雨强度、坡度、坡长、土壤前期含水率和土壤容重,输出层变量为次降雨土壤侵蚀产沙量,并利用野外人工模拟降雨试验所得到的不同耕作措施(等高耕作、人工掏挖、人工锄耕和直线坡)坡面土壤侵蚀产沙实测资料,对网络进行模拟训练和预测,取得了较好的结果。该模型的建立与求解,为复杂坡面土壤侵蚀规律的研究提供了一条新途径。     

基于水量水质耦合模型的辽宁西部农业面源污染模拟研究

将辽宁非饱和水量模型和水质模型进行耦合,并以辽宁西部某流域为研究区域,对该区域的农业面源污染进行模拟。此外通过设定不同农业耕作方式,模拟分析不同耕作方式对流域面源污染影响。研究结果表明:构建的水量水质耦合模型在流域农业面源污染模拟具有较好的精度,各指标模拟误差小于25%,拟合系数在0.6以上,模型适用于区域农业面源污染模拟。研究成果对于干旱半干旱区域农业面源污染提供方法参考。     

黑土区覆混耕作中玉米秸秆还田对土壤水分入渗性能的影响

覆盖混埋耕作主要通过联合整地机对秸秆进行切碎并均匀混入土壤,对降低风蚀水蚀、提高耕层土壤蓄水能力及构建优质种床具有重要作用。为探究覆混耕作中玉米秸秆对土壤水分入渗性能的影响,该研究利用Design Expert软件,根据Box-Behnken试验原理通过室内土柱模拟试验,以覆混耕作中秸秆混埋深度、秸秆混埋量、秸秆长度为影响因素,以渗水量为指标进行三因素三水平二次回归正交试验。通过建立响应面数学模型,分析了各因素对土壤水分入渗性能的影响,并对影响因素进行了综合优化。试验结果表明:对渗水量影响主次顺序为秸秆混埋深度、秸秆长度、秸秆混埋量;当秸秆混埋深度为20 cm、秸秆混埋量为80%、秸秆长度为9 cm时,渗水量达到最优值0.249 L。利用优化后的参数进行试验验证,土壤渗水量为0.247 L。研究结果可为覆混耕作中联合整地机的作业参数调整提供参考和土壤水分入渗性能研究提供参考。     

复垦土壤耕作效果的定量评价

运用模型集理论开发一个定量评价土壤生产力的数学模型－模糊PI模型，并应用该模型提出了耕作效果指数的概念和计算方法，通过评复垦土壤4种耕作处理的耕作效果，得到了令人满意的结果。     

基于Modelica语言建模的柴油机稳动态性能仿真与试验

针对传统柴油机建模效率不高、所建模型抽象不易理解、软件平台开放程度差、模型通用性低的问题,采用多领域统一物理建模规范Modelica语言和面向对象的建模思想建立了柴油机的仿真模型。以上柴D4114B型发电用柴油机为例,在解决上述问题的同时模拟了负荷特性下柴油机的稳态过程,最高压力、排温等稳态数据点的实测值与仿真值的最大相对误差为8.9%,证明了所建立的柴油机模型具有较好的稳态性能。在此基础上进行了动态仿真,模拟了转速、单缸循环油量等参数的动态变化规律,并将部分参数的仿真值与实测值进行比较,两者吻合得比较好,证明了所建立的柴油机模型能较好地预测其动态性能,可为后续的基于Modelica语言的柴油机建模提供参考。     

Modeling tillage effects on soil physical properties

Tillage refers to the manipulation of soil by an implement powered by humans, animals or machines. Tillage operation generally create two zones: (1) a zone where soil has been fractured and then turned over leading to rough surface conditions; and (2) a zone where soil has been compacted by the weight of the machinery. Thus, modeling tillage effects on soil physical properties involves two separate approaches depending upon the zone under consideration.

Modeling tillage systems offers an opportunity to: (1) synthesize the extensive experimental data in the literature; (2) develop tools for site specific management recommendations; and (3) identify areas of research where additional information is needed. Modeling tillage systems involves modeling the soil physical, chemical and biological properties and processes and then linking them with crop growth models to simulate crop yields or environmental impacts. This paper reviews models for predicting tillage effects on state soil physical properties. Specifically, we reviewed models which predict bulk density, surface microrelief, aerodynamic roughness length, water retention characteristics, hydraulic conductivity function, thermal conductivity, volumetric heat capacity and gas diffusion coefficient. Since most of the existing models for predicting soil physical properties are developed for untilled soils, the paper outlines procedures to adapt these models to fractured and compacted zones in tilled soils. The paper also identifies specific assumptions that need both laboratory and field testing.     

Simulation of soil–blade interaction for sandy soil using advanced 3D finite element analysis

In this paper a finite element investigation of the tillage of dry sandy soil, using the hypoplastic constitutive material model, is described. In most earth moving machinery, such as bulldozers or tillage tools, the working tool is a blade. Hence for tillage systems, accurately predicting the forces acting on the blade is of prime importance in helping to enhance productivity. The initial conditions, such as blade geometry or soil type, and operating conditions, such as cutting speed and cutting depth, have been shown experimentally to have a great effect on machine productivity. Experimental studies give valuable insights but can be expensive and may be limited to certain cutting speeds and depths. Results are also highly dependent on the accuracy of the measuring devices. However with increasing computational power and the development of more sophisticated material models, finite element analysis shows more promise in analyzing the factors affecting soil–blade interaction. Most of the available finite element studies in the literature are two-dimensional or if three-dimensional (3D), are limited to a certain blade displacement depending on the element distortion limit before the solution has convergence problems. In this study, a 3D finite element analysis of soil–blade interaction was carried out based on predefined horizontal and vertical failure surfaces, to investigate the behavior of the soil–blade interface and study the effect of blade-cutting width and lateral boundary width on predicted forces. Sandy soil was considered in this study and modeled using the hypoplastic constitutive model implemented in a commercial finite code, ‘ABAQUS’. Results reveal the validity of the concept of predefined failure surfaces in simulating soil–blade interaction and the significant effect of blade-cutting width, lateral boundary width and soil swelling on cutting forces.     

Tillage systems and soil properties in east Africa

This paper defines tillage, indicating that as it is mostly a physical concern of the soil, it has not been studied as much as chemically related soil properties. Tillage in shifting cultivation is also reviewed. Different tillage systems in a number of east African Countries namely Tanzania, Malawi, Botswana, Kenya, Zambia and Uganda are reviewed. The types of tillage in their respective soils are discussed in each Country. Uganda's tillage practices for the main food crop (banana) are discussed, pointing out the crop's rooting system in relation to the heavy, relatively fertile soils, where the bananas are mostly grown. The paper distinguishes between tillage to avoid soil compaction and tillage to reduce soil crusting or hardening and concludes that more research should be carried out on tillage practices relating to heavy soils as it affects the different types of crops, as most of the previous tillage research had been carried out on relatively light soils. Soil crusting or hardening which may involve an understanding of the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil, should also receive more attention.     

Advances in modeling machine-soil-plant interactions

Modern agriculture involves mechanized operations which affect crop growth and yields through changes in the soil environment. Field research to study the phenomena involved in the soil-machine-crop system is usually site-specific with respect to edaphic, climatic and management factors. Field experiments are often expensive to conduct, and generalization to other sites or practices is usually tenuous at best. Computer-based techniques to simulate machine-soil-plant (or crop) systems can test many combinations of site characteristics and management practices, and screen the most promising combinations. Once these promising combinations are validated, the simulation techniques, together with stochastically-supported data bases can be used to predict tillage management systems suitable for specific sites and crops.Current efforts to model plant response to soil conditions created by tillage and machines have serious shortcomings, because the link between tool action, subsequent soil structure, and the parameters that describe fluxes of water, heat and gas need further development for deterministic modeling. Machine-soil models focus on efficiency of the tillage operation, while soil-plant models focus on soil structure and related parameters influencing plant growth. While current models for simulating the machine-soil-crop system have limitations, an approach to bridge between the two model applications offers great promise and should be a high research priority. When used with improved measurements of tool action and of soil structural properties before and after tillage and traffic, including position or placement of the crop residues, current models can be doubly effective for improving tillage management.     

Impacts of periodic tillage on soil C stocks: A synthesis

Long-term loss of soil C stocks under conventional tillage and accrual of soil C following adoption of no-tillage have been well documented. No-tillage use is spreading, but it is common to occasionally till within a no-till regime or to regularly alternate between till and no-till practices within a rotation of different crops. Short-term studies indicate that substantial amounts of C can be lost from the soil immediately following a tillage event, but there are few field studies that have investigated the impact of infrequent tillage on soil C stocks. How much of the C sequestered under no-tillage is likely to be lost if the soil is tilled? What are the longer-term impacts of continued infrequent no-tillage? If producers are to be compensated for sequestering C in soil following adoption of conservation tillage practices, the impacts of infrequent tillage need to be quantified. A few studies have examined the short-term impacts of tillage on soil C and several have investigated the impacts of adoption of continuous no-tillage. We present: (1) results from a modeling study carried out to address these questions more broadly than the published literature allows, (2) a review of the literature examining the short-term impacts of tillage on soil C, (3) a review of published studies on the physical impacts of tillage and (4) a synthesis of these components to assess how infrequent tillage impacts soil C stocks and how changes in tillage frequency could impact soil C stocks and C sequestration. Results indicate that soil C declines significantly following even one tillage event (1–11% of soil C lost). Longer-term losses increase as frequency of tillage increases. Model analyses indicate that cultivating and ripping are less disruptive than moldboard plowing, and soil C for those treatments average just 6% less than continuous NT compared to 27% less for CT. Most (80%) of the soil C gains of NT can be realized with NT coupled with biannual cultivating or ripping.     

Effect of design parameters of flat tillage tools on loosening of a clay soil

Very little research has been done to investigate soil loosening as a function of the geometry of the tillage tool and of the original soil properties and moisture content. A field experiment was conducted to observe the effects of the geometric parameters of flat tillage tools on their draft, cutting efficiency and loosening of a moist clay soil. The test tool variables included rake angles to the horizontal of 30, 60 and 90°, widths of 75 and 150 mm and depths of operation of 100, 150 and 200 mm. Measurements were taken of draft, disturbed soil cross sectional profiles and the initial area of soil disturbed by the tools. The resulting draft requirement increased with width, depth and rake angle of the tool. The cross sectional area of soil disturbed did not change appreciably with rake angle, but the significant increase in draft with angle resulted in markedly diminished soil cutting efficiency (area divided by draft). The degree of soil loosening was generally smaller at a rake angle of 60° than at 30 or 90°, and tended to be higher at greater depths of operation. In addition, a larger depth to width ratio generally increased the degree of loosening. Results for the soil studied indicate that the best implement design for low draft, high cutting efficiency and superior soil loosening should have a rake angle of about 30° and should be fairly narrow with a depth to width ratio of 2 or more.     

Diesel oil consumption,work duration,and crop production of corn and durum wheat under conventional and no-tillage in southeastern France

In no-tillage (NT) system, precedent crop residue retains on the soil surface to preserve soil water for crop growth. In response to the negative impact of soil degradation under conventional tillage (CT) system based on soil tillage, NT system without tillage practice and with protective cover of crop residue is being developed in many parts of the world. However, NT is a successful system especially in the South of America, but the impacts of this system on the Mediterranean climate especially in the southeast (SE) of France is less known; therefore, this study has been carried out within the scope of a European project. Durum wheat and corn were sown under CT and NT. Time requirement and fuel consumption in these two systems were measured. The results showed that durum wheat and corn yields were the same in both systems except of 2008, while work duration and energy requirement were 87% and 83% lower in NT system, respectively. Furthermore, NT could mitigate CO₂ emission up to 50% as compared with CT. These results show that NT can be considered as a relevant alternative for CT regarding economical and environmental advantages.     

基于离散元法的旋耕刀受力分析

为分析旋耕刀在有秸秆覆盖和无秸秆覆盖土壤中工作时的受力情况,该文采用离散元法构建土壤-旋耕刀相互作用和秸秆-土壤-旋耕刀相互作用的三维离散元模型。在土槽试验中采用扭矩传感器测量旋耕刀所受扭矩,在仿真中导出每个时刻旋耕刀受到的扭矩和力数据,试验和仿真都在恒定前进速度0.222 m/s和耕作深度100 mm及4种转速77、100、123、146 r/min下进行。结果显示旋耕刀最大扭矩值随着转速增加呈现增加的趋势;在无秸秆覆盖土壤中,试验值与仿真值的相对误差为16.3%;在有秸秆覆盖土壤中二者相对误差为19.1%。耕作过程中旋耕刀所受合力、水平力及侧向力都呈现先升后降的趋势;合力、水平力和垂直力的最大值,都随着转速的增加而增加。旋耕刀刚开始切土时,在有秸秆覆盖的土壤中受到的阻力总比无秸秆覆盖的土壤中所受阻力要大;之后旋耕刀在有秸秆覆盖的土壤中受到的最大力要大于在无秸秆覆盖的土壤中受到的最大力。仿真的水平力和垂直力与旋耕刀理论模型计算得到的旋耕刀水平力和垂直力变化一致。利用离散元法研究旋耕刀切土过程,对探讨刀具与土壤的相互作用机理及设计和优化高秸秆含量土壤中工作的耕作机械具有重要意义。     

Tillage methods and soil and water conservation methods in the Caribbean

This review describes the tillage methods and soil conservation methods currently utilized in the Commonwealth Caribbean on a range of slopes. A high percentage of the land has slopes which exceed 20° minimum. In these circumstances, tillage is carried out with hand tools and frequently combined with conservation contour drains or/and barriers of cut vegetation laid across the contour. Many farmers form ridges and furrows on the contour with hand tools and a significant number do not use any conservation measures. Tillage, on flat or gently sloping land, is done largely by tractor drawn implements and the tillage method is mainly determined by the crop to be grown and the soil type. The tillage methods used for the cultivation of sugar cane, rice, banana, vegetables and other small row crops are described. The agronomic, cultural and engineering practices used to conserve the soil against water erosion are also described.