Prevalence, numbers and antimicrobial susceptibilities of Salmonella serovars and Campylobacter spp. in retail poultry in Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Salmonella and Campylobacter are common bacterial pathogens associated with human gastro-enteritis; and raw poultry is considered to be an important source of these bacteria. To evaluate whether the Salmonella serovars and Campylobacter spp. bacteria could be monitored for the purpose of microbial presence, enumeration and antimicrobial resistance in raw poultry, 152 poultry carcasses were randomly selected from 10 markets in retail outlets of Phnom Penh during March 2006 to February 2007. The majority of poultry samples was contaminated by Salmonella serovars (88.2%) and Campylobacter spp. (80.9%). A very high contamination of Salmonella was found at 3-4 log?? CFU/g for 22.4% of samples and of Campylobacter at 7-8 log?? CFU/g for 1.3% of samples. Fifty nine different Salmonella serovars contaminated 134 poultry carcasses; five most prevalent serovars covered 29.1% of serovars isolates (Anatum, Typhimurium, Corvallis, Stanley and Enteritidis). Three Campylobacter species contaminating 123 raw poultry were Campylobacter jejuni (50.0%), Campylobacter coli (29.0%) and Campylobacter lari (21.0%). High antibiotic resistance percentages were found among Salmonella serovars and Campylobacter spp. isolates. This study revealed that raw poultry at the retail outlets in Phnom Penh markets are contaminated with high prevalences of food-borne pathogens, and communicating the importance of minimizing this risk in reducing human infections.     

Prevalence of Campylobacter spp. and Yersinia spp. in the pig production

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. and Yersinia spp. in a total of 1,040 faecal samples taken from animals at different ages from four farrowing and twelve fattening herds. In the farrowing unit, faeces were collected from 68 sows (faecal samples) and 256 suckling piglets (rectal swab samples). Further samples were collected from 362 growing and 354 finishing pigs (rectal swab samples). Additionally, 56 feed and environmental samples were collected. During the slaughtering process, 122 pigs and their carcasses respectively, were sampled three times. Finally, 86 meat and minced meat samples were taken from 34 retail stores. Campylobacter spp. were isolated in sows (33.8 %), piglets (80.9 %), growing (89.2 %) and finishing (64.7 %) pigs. Yersinia spp. were detected in growing (15.2 %) and finishing (13.3 %) pigs only. After twelve hours of chilling neither Campylobacter spp. nor Yersinia spp. were detected. In raw meat samples, Campylobacter spp. were isolated from one liver sample and Yersinia enterocolitica from two meat samples. Common slaughter techniques and hygiene procedures may be effective tools to reduce the risk of contamination and recontamination of meat products since Campylobacter spp. and Yersinia spp. were found only sporadically in raw meat samples.     

Identification of Salmonella spp. isolates from chicken abattoirs by multiplex-PCR

The present study was carried out to report the occurrence Salmonella spp., Salmonella Enteritidis, and Salmonella Typhimurium in chicken abattoirs. Samples of feces; feathers; scald, evisceration, and chiller water; and rinse water of non-eviscerated, eviscerated, and chilled carcass were collected from six chicken abattoirs. Salmonella isolates were identified by a multiplex-PCR using three sets of primers targeting the invA, pefA, and sefA gene sequences from Salmonella spp., S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis, respectively. Salmonella spp. was detected in 10% (29/288) of the samples, whereas serovars Enteritidis and Typhimurium were identified in 62% (7/288), respectively. The results indicate the need to improve hygiene and sanitary standards in poultry slaughter lines, besides the education of food handlers and information to consumers.     

Identification of Leptospira spp. carriers among seroreactive goats and sheep by polymerase chain reaction

Few studies were conducted on the diagnosis and control of small ruminants’ leptospirosis. Thirteen goat herds and seven sheep flocks located in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, were screened for leptospirosis. From the three herds and three flocks with greatest seroreactivity by MAT (Microscopic Agglutination Test), 19 and 40 seropositive goats and sheep, respectively, were selected, and urine samples were collected for bacteriology and PCR. For both species of animals, the most prevalent reactions were due to serogroups Sejroe and Shermani. Although leptospires were observed by darkfield microscopy in eight samples, pure isolates were obtained by bacteriological culture from only two samples. However, twelve urine samples (six goats and six sheep) were positive by PCR. Based on these findings, we consider that the combined use of MAT as a screening test followed by urine PCR for the direct detection of Leptospira spp. DNA was adequate for the identification of carrier animals among goats and sheep. These are valuable tools for the control of leptospirosis in small ruminants.     

Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella spp. in small Indian mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) in Grenada,West Indies

Intestinal samples from 156 small Indian mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) collected island-wide in Grenada from April 2011 to March 2013 were examined for the presence of Salmonella enterica spp. Nineteen (12%) mongooses were culture-positive for S. enterica spp. of which five serotypes were identified. Salmonella javiana and S. Montevideo were the most commonly isolated serotypes. The other serotypes isolated were S. Rubislaw, S. Panama and S. Arechavaleta. All isolates were susceptible to amoxicillin–clavulanic acid, ampicillin, cefotaxime, ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, gentamicin, nalidixic acid, imipenem and trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole. One isolate (S. Montevideo) showed resistance to tetracycline and intermediate resistance to streptomycin. The five isolated Salmonella serotypes are potential human pathogens suggesting that the mongoose may play a role in the epidemiology of human salmonellosis in Grenada.     

Microbiological baseline study of beef and pork carcasses from provincially inspected abattoirs in Alberta, Canada

In 2006 and 2007 beef and pork carcass swabs from provincially inspected abattoirs in Alberta, Canada were tested to determine the levels of total aerobic bacteria, coliform bacteria, and generic Escherichia coli, and the prevalence of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC). Swabs from beef and pork carcasses from 48 and 34 facilities, respectively, were analyzed. All samples tested were positive for aerobic bacteria with 99.8% of beef and 96.0% of pork samples, having total counts of ≤ 100 000 CFU/cm(2). Coliform bacteria were isolated from 22.4% and 42.0% of beef and pork carcass samples, respectively. Generic E. coli were recovered from 14.6% of beef and 33.7% of pork carcass samples. For beef carcasses, positive tests were obtained for 0.1% of 1036 samples tested for Salmonella spp., 1.5% of 1022 samples tested for Campylobacter spp. and 5.4% of 1018 samples tested for STEC. For pork carcasses, positive tests were obtained for 1.6 % of 1076 samples tested for Salmonella spp., 8.8% of 1070 samples tested for Campylobacter spp. and 4.8% of 1067 samples tested for STEC.     

Prevalence and risk factors for Campylobacter spp. in chicken broiler flocks in Reunion Island (Indian Ocean)

Our objectives were to determine Campylobacter prevalence in broiler chicken flocks in Reunion Island and to define specific practices associated with the presence of Campylobacter spp. Infection in Reunionese broiler flocks. Fifty broiler flocks were studied in Reunion Island from May 2007 to February 2009. A questionnaire was submitted to the farmers and samples of fresh droppings were collected to assess the flock's Campylobacter status. Fifty four percent of the flocks were infected by Campylobacter spp.: 30% (95% CI: 28.71-31.29) were infected with Campylobacter coli and 17% (95% CI: 15.95-18.05) with Campylobacter jejuni; only 7% (95% CI: 6.28-7.72) were infected by both species at the same time. Several poultry houses in the farm (OR=11.2; [1.05-92]) and cleaning without any detergent (OR=13.1; [2.1-78.3]) increased the risk of Campylobacter infection. A distance higher than 500 m between broiler farms (OR=0.27; [0.1-0.8]) and use of disinfectant during the rearing period decreased this risk of infection (OR=0.15; [0.1-0.75]).     

Determination of the incidence of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter jejuni, and Clostridium perfringens in wild birds near broiler chicken houses by sampling intestinal droppings

Several methods were evaluated for collecting fecal and intestinal samples from wild birds found near broiler chicken houses. A few intestinal samples and cloacal swabs were obtained from European starlings and house sparrows. Most of the samples collected consisted of wild bird droppings found on or near the houses. Samples were collected from each of four farms of a broiler integrator during a grow-out cycle: a cycle in the summer for farm A, fall for farm B, and spring, summer, fall, and winter for farms C and D. Of the 25 wild bird intestinal and fecal samples collected from a broiler house on farm A during a grow-out cycle in July-August 1997, 24% were positive for Salmonella spp., 4% for Campylobacter jejuni, and 28% for Clostridium perfringens. Of the nine fecal samples collected from broiler house B in a grow-out cycle in September-November 1997, 33% were positive for Salmonella spp., 11% for C. jejuni, and 22% for C. perfringens. For farms C and D, of the 23 samples collected in March-April 1998, 0 were positive for Salmonella spp., 11% for C. jejuni, and 52% for C. perfringens; of 27 samples collected in June-July 1998, 4% were positive for Salmonella spp., 0 for C. jejuni, and 13% for C. perfringens; of 24 samples collected in August-October 1998, 14% were positive for Salmonella spp., 5% for C. jejuni, and 4% for C. perfringens; of 14 samples collected December 1998-January 1999, 0 were positive for Salmonella, 50% for C. jejuni, and 14% for C. perfringens. The incidence of these bacterial enteropathogens in wild birds near the broiler chicken houses suggests that wild birds that gain entry to poultry grow-out houses have the potential to transmit these pathogens to poultry.     

Campylobacter spp. in Irish feedlot cattle: a longitudinal study involving pre-harvest and harvest phases of the food chain

The aim of this study was to investigate faecal shedding and transmission of Campylobacter spp. in cohorts of cattle within a feedlot, to assess subsequent contamination of carcasses with this pathogen and to identify risk factors associated with faecal shedding of Campylobacter spp. A cohort of 133 heifers housed in four adjacent pens was examined over a five and a half month period, from entering the feedlot to slaughter. A parallel investigation of individual rectal faecal samples and pen environmental samples were taken at monthly intervals from November to February. The entire outer and inner surfaces of a carcass side of each animal were swabbed immediately following slaughter. Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 322 (54%) of the 600 rectal faecal samples. Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli accounted for 69 and 29.7% of the isolate recovered, respectively. A total of 159 environmental samples were examined, of these Campylobacter spp. was isolated from 46 samples (29%). Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli accounted for 35 and 59% of these isolates, respectively. Campylobacter spp. was not isolated from any of the dressed carcasses. Logistic regression indicated prevalence of Campylobacter spp. faecal shedding within pens was positively correlated to the pen, the month of sampling and the Campylobacter spp. contamination status of the pen dividing bars and the water trough surface. Campylobacter spp. should be considered as a pathogen shed in the faeces of a substantial proportion of feedlot cattle. However, with good hygienic practice during harvest, a very low level of this pathogen can be achieved on dressed carcasses.     

A multiplex real-time PCR for differential detection and quantification of Salmonella spp., Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and Enteritidis in meats

Salmonella (S.) Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis are the major causative agents of food-borne illnesses worldwide. Currently, a rapid detection system using multiplex real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been applied for other food-borne pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus spp. A multiplex real-time PCR was developed for the simultaneous detection of Salmonella spp., especially S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis, in beef and pork. For the specific and sensitive multiplex real-time PCR, three representative primers and probes were designed based on sequence data from Genbank. Among the three DNA extraction methods (boiling, alkaline lysis, and QIAamp DNA Mini Kit), the QIAamp DNA Mini Kit was the most sensitive in this study. The optimized multiplex real-time PCR was applied to artificially inoculated beef or pork. The detection sensitivity of the multiplex real-time PCR was increased. The specificity of the multiplex real-time PCR assay, using 128 pure-cultured bacteria including 110 Salmonella isolates and 18 non-Salmonella isolates, was 100%, 100% and 99.1% for Salmonella spp., S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis, respectively. The sensitivity was 100%, 100% and 91.7% for Salmonella spp., S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis, respectively. The multiplex real-time PCR assay developed in this study could detect up to 0.54 ± 0.09 and 0.65 ± 0.07 log₁₀ CFU/ml for S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis for beef, 1.45 ± 0.21 and 1.65 ± 0.07 log₁₀ CFU/ml for S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis for pork, respectively, with all conditions optimized. Our results indicated that the multiplex real-time PCR assay developed in this study could sensitively detect Salmonella spp. and specifically differentiate S. Typhimurium from S. Enteritidis in meats.     

Fecal shedding of Salmonella spp by horses in the United States during 1998 and 1999 and detection of Salmonella spp in grain and concentrate sources on equine operations

OBJECTIVE: To estimate prevalence of fecal shedding of Salmonella spp among horses in the US horse population and prevalence of Salmonella spp in grain or other concentrate used as horse feed on equine operations in the United States. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. SAMPLE POPULATION: Horses on 972 operations in 28 states. PROCEDURE: Fecal samples were collected from horses resident at each operation. Only a single sample was collected from any individual horse; number of horses from which samples were collected on each operation was determined on the basis of number of horses on the operation. A single sample of grain or concentrate was also collected from each operation. All samples were tested for Salmonella spp by means of bacterial culture. RESULTS: Overall, 0.8% (SE, 0.5) of resident horses shed Salmonella spp in their feces. The overall prevalence of operations positive for fecal shedding of Salmonella spp (i.e., operations with > or = 1 horse shedding Salmonella spp in its feces) was 1.8% (SE, 0.7). Prevalence of grain or other concentrate samples positive for Salmonella spp was 0.4%. Serotypes of Salmonella spp that were identified in grain or other concentrate were not those typically associated with clinical disease in horses. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that the national prevalence of fecal shedding of Salmonella spp by horses in the United States was 0.8%, and that prevalence of Salmonella spp in grain or other concentrate used for horse feed was 0.4%.     

Pathogenic bacteria and parasites in wildlife and surface water

In the period October 2003 to August 2005, 897 faecal samples were collected from wild animals and examined for Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., and Shiga toxin producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157, the prevalence of which was found to be 0.1%, 13.8%, and 0.5 %, respectively. Campylobacter spp. were isolated mainly from faecal samples collected from corvidae (59.8%), and meadow birds and waterfowl (22.4%). A subset of these samples was also examined for Cryptosporidium and Giardia oocysts and cysts. None of the 247 samples examined contained C. parvum oocysts, and only 1 sample (roe faeces) contained G. lamblia assemblage A cysts. In the period September to November 2006, samples of running or still surface water were collected at 10 sites on 5 days, to investigate the presence of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., and STEC O157. Twenty (40.8%) of the surface water samples were positive for one or more bacterial pathogens. Seven (14.3%) samples were positiveforSalmonella spp., 14 (28.6%) samples were positive for Campylobacter spp., and 1 (2.0%) sample was positivefor E. coli O157. Samples collected at only 2 of the 10 sites were negative for the pathogens tested; samples collected at the other 8 sites were positive for the pathogens at least once. To gain a better picture of the potential human health risk, this study should be followed up with a more quantitative study of the occurrence of human pathogens in wildlife, taking into account the different natural habitats and behaviour of the different animal populations and a possible seasonal effect. Furthermore, the contamination of surface water with human pathogens should be investigated more extensively.     

The effect of a probiotic Enterococcus faecium product in diets of healthy dogs on bacteriological counts of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and Clostridium spp. in faeces.

An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of a probiotic on selected faecal bacteria of healthy dogs under different feed and environmental conditions. For the study 12 dogs kept in households were used for an 18-day supplementation with a patented commercially available strain of E. faecium NCIB 10415 (Enteroferm). In order to minimize losses the probiotic product was orally applicated once a day before meals at a dose of 2 g per dog (9.2 x 10(9) CFU). The faeces were collected before the beginning of the supplementation and at the end of the 18-day application period. In order to exclude contamination, all faeces were taken rectally. Before and at the end of the experimental period total Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and Clostridium spp. counts were determined in fresh faeces using selective media. It was demonstrated that the 18-day application of the probiotic E. faecium product induced modifications on the gastrointestinal microflora in all dogs. While Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. counts were in majority of the dogs higher than before the application. Clostridium spp. counts were significantly reduced in 10 of 12 dogs. According to the guidelines for the evaluation of the efficiency of microorganisms in dogs a relevant efficacy effect was supported by this data. However, a beneficial effect of the probiotic product on healthy dogs remains questionable.     

Prevalence of Salmonella spp on conventional and organic dairy farms

OBJECTIVE: To describe the occurrence of fecal shedding, persistence of shedding over time, and serogroup classification of Salmonella spp on a large number of dairy farms of various sizes. DESIGN: Longitudinal study. SAMPLE POPULATION: 22,417 fecal samples from cattle and 4,570 samples from the farm environment on 110 organic and conventional dairy farms in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, and NewYork. PROCEDURE: 5 visits were made to each farm at 2-month intervals from August 2000 to October 2001. Fecal samples from healthy cows, calves, and other targeted cattle groups and samples from bulk tank milk, milk line filters, water, feed sources, and pen floors were collected at each visit. Bacterial culture was performed at 1 laboratory. RESULTS: Salmonella spp were isolated from 4.8% of fecal samples and 5.9% of environmental samples; 92.7% of farms had at least 1 Salmonella-positive sample. The 75th percentile for median within-herd prevalence of Salmonella spp in cattle for 5 sampling visits to a given farm was 2.0% and for maximum within-herd prevalence of Salmonella spp was 13.6%. Farms with a median within-herd prevalence of Salmonella spp of > or = 2.0% accounted for 76.3% of Salmonella-positive samples. There was no significant difference in the prevalence of Salmonella spp between conventional and organic farms. Seasonal differences in Salmonella shedding were observed. More farms had at least 1 serogroup B isolate than any other serogroup, whereas serogroup E1 was the most common among all Salmonella-positive samples. More than 1 serogroup was isolated on 76.4% of Salmonella-positive farms. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Salmonella spp were isolated from > 90% of dairy farms; however, 25% of farms accounted for > 75% of Salmonella-positive samples. This information is critical for the direction of intervention strategies to decrease the prevalence of Salmonella spp on dairy farms.     

The occurrence of Cryptosporidium parvum, Campylobacter and Salmonella in newborn dairy calves in the Manawatu region of New Zealand

AIM: To determine the occurrence of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts, Campylobacter spp and Salmonella spp in faecal samples taken from newborn dairy calves on 24 dairy farms in the Manawatu region of New Zealand. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted during the 2002 calving season. Faecal samples were collected from 185 newborn calves from a convenience sample of 24 dairy farms. The samples were tested microscopically for the presence of C. parvum oocysts, and bacteriologically for the presence of Campylobacter spp and Salmonella spp. RESULTS: Infections with C. parvum were identified in 33/156 (21.2%) calves from 10 farms. More than 10(6) oocysts/g (OPG) faeces were detected in calves from four farms. Campylobacter spp were isolated from 58/161 (36%) calves from 18 farms; in particular, C. jejuni subsp jejuni was isolated from 11/161 (6.8%) calves from seven farms. Salmonellae were not detected. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the short and concentrated calving pattern and the long interval between calving seasons characterising most dairy farms in New Zealand, C. parvum is widespread among calves. Campylobacter spp, especially C. jejuni, rapidly colonise the intestinal tract of newborn calves. RELEVANCE: This study provided an estimate of the ecological impact of newborn dairy calves with regard to the potentially zoonotic enteric pathogens most frequently isolated from human gastrointestinal infections in New Zealand.     

The occurrence of Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. in gulls in northern Germany

Out of a total of 207 gulls--20 Black headed gulls, 185 Herring gulls and 2 Common gulls--128 (62%) and 23 (11%) birds, respectively, were infected with Campylobacter spp. (C.) and Salmonella spp. C. jejuni was predominant in gulls less than two years old (89%) and C. coli in older birds (75%). Furthermore, the infection rate with Campylobacters was depending on the habitats of the birds. The rate for C. jejuni and C. coli, respectively, was in gulls from regional garbage dumps 78% and 4%, from the coast 58% and 21%, and from islands 47% and 47% of the isolations in the corresponding area. Salmonellae were mainly isolated in the period from September to February from gulls less than one year old and from birds from the coast.     

Diagnosis of Helicobacter spp. infection in canine stomach

A total of 75 biopsied samples of cardia, fundus, body, and pyloric antrum from necropsied dogs that were submitted to the Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University from April 2003 to June 2004 were investigated. The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of Helicobacter spp. in canine stomach by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in comparison to histochemistry versus immunohistochemistry (IHC), and to correlate these diagnostic methods with the clinical significance in infected dogs. Histopathological results revealed 60.0% (45/75) of samples to be positive, and consisted of mild gastritis in 64.44% (29/45), moderate gastritis in 11.11% (5/45), and severe gastritis in 24.44% (11/45). The proportion showing no histopathological lesions was 40.0% (30/75). Helicobacter spp. were localized to the luminal crypt in 18.67% (14/75), gastric pit in 22.67% (17/75), gastric gland in 21.33% (16/75), and gastric epithelium in 8% (6/75). The percentages of positive samples of Helicobacter spp. diagnosed by hematoxylin and eosin stain (H&E), Warthin Starry stain (WSS), IHC with rabbit polyclonal anti-H. pylori antibody, and PCR were 17.3% (13/75), 46.7% (35/75), 30.7% (23/75), and 10.7% (8/75), respectively. No significant differences weree observed in histopathological changes in portions of the stomach (p>0.05). The diagnosis of Helicobacter spp. by PCR in comparison to that by WSS and IHC was not significantly different (p>0.05). There were no relationships between pathological studies using H&E, WSS, and IHC, and especially between PCR and clinical signs of Helicobacter spp. infections in canine stomachs (p>0.05). The present study revealed significantly different levels of correlation for Helicobacter spp. detection between H&E and WSS (p<0.001). Results indicate that the method of choice for diagnosis of Helicobacter spp. infection in canine stomach is dependent on the purpose of study and appropriate specimen collection.     

Detection of Helicobacter spp. in gastric, fecal and saliva samples from swine affected by gastric ulceration

The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of Helicobacter (H.) spp. in swine affected by gastric ulceration. Stomachs from 400 regularly slaughtered swine were subjected to gross pathological examination to evaluate the presence of gastric ulcers. Sixty-five samples collected from ulcerated pars esophagea and 15 samples from non-ulcerated pyloric portions were submitted to histopathological and molecular analyses, to detect Helicobacter spp., H. suis and H. pylori by PCR. Feces and saliva swabs were also collected from 25 animals in order to detect in vivo the presence of Helicobacter spp.. Gastric ulcers were detected in 373 cases (93%). The presence of ulcers in association with inflammatory processes was further confirmed by histological examination. Forty-nine percent (32/65) of the ulcerated esophageal portions as well as 53% (8/15) of the non-ulcerated pyloric portions were positive for Helicobacter spp. by PCR. The Helicobacter spp. positive samples were also positive for H. suis, while H. pylori was not detected. These results were confirmed by restriction enzyme analysis. With regard to feces and saliva samples, 15/25 (60%) and 16/25 (64%) were positive for Helicobacter spp. PCR, respectively but all were negative in H. suis and H. pylori specific PCR.     

Prevalence of exposure to Salmonella spp in finishing swine marketed in Iowa

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of antibodies against Salmonella spp in swine marketed in Iowa. ANIMALS: Swine marketed by 1,044 low-volume producers and 45 high-volume producers. PROCEDURE: Samples of diaphragm muscle collected from swine carcasses were tested by an indirect ELISA based on lipopolysaccharides from Salmonella spp, in particular Salmonella serovar Typhimurium. Prevalence of positive results for antibodies against Salmonella spp for carcasses, lots, and swine for each producer was determined. Producer-level seroprevalence was used to classify swine from producers as having negligible, low, moderate, or widespread evidence of previous or historical exposure to Salmonella spp. RESULTS: From low-volume producers, 23,609 of 25,478 (92.7%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 92.4% to 92.9%) samples had negative results, and 1,863 (7.3%; 95% CI, 7.05% to 7.56%) had antibodies against Salmonella spp. Of the 6,299 lots of swine tested, 1,191 (18.9%) contained at least 1 sample with positive results. From high-volume producers, 203 of 2,486 (8.1%; 95% CI, 6.8% to 9.3%) samples had antibodies against Salmonella spp, and 124 of 629 lots had at least 1 sample with positive results for antibodies against Salmonella spp. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Less than 10% of pigs marketed in Iowa are apparently exposed to Salmonella spp. Most swine marketed by low-volume producers had negligible or little evidence of exposure to Salmonella spp, whereas a higher percentage of swine marketed by high-volume producers had positive results when tested to detect antibodies against Salmonella spp.     

Incidence of zoonoses in petting zoos and evaluation of hygiene measures to prevent the transmission to humans

In summer 2003, a study was performed in thirty Swiss petting zoos with the objective to determine the prevalence of zoonotic agents, and to describe hygiene measures implemented to reduce the risk of human infection. Fecal samples from different animal species were collected from the floor of pens to determine the prevalence of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., verocytotoxin producing E. coli/ VTEC and Francisella tularensis. A questionnaire on hygiene measures, number of animals per species, housing system, care procedures and feeding was administered to every petting zoo to estimate exposure of visitors to zoonotic microorganisms. In total, 423 fecal samples were examined. Of these samples, 41 were positive for Campylobacter spp., which were mainly isolates from pigs and poultry (35% positive samples from each species). In pigs, 50% of the positive samples (6 samples) were typed as C. jejuni. The others were typed as C. coli (3) and C lan' (3), respectively. Five poultry isolates were typed as C. jejuni, and two as C. coli. Two samples were positive for Salmonella spp. Salmonella typhimurium was isolated from a goat, the other isolate could not be identified by serotyping. Neither Francisella tularensis nor verocytotoxin producing E. coli/ VTEC were found. The low prevalence of zoonotic microorganisms in Swiss petting zoos could be attributed to the cleanness of enclosures and animals, low stocking rates and good animal care. However, there is room for improvement concerning visitors' information on hygiene and hand washing. Furthermore, a strict separation between picnic - areas and animals should be enforced.