Response to comment by Dr. A.S. Kowalski on “The storage term in eddy flux calculations”

Kowalski correctly points out that the analysis in [Finnigan, J.J., 2006. The storage term in eddy flux calculations. Agric. Forest Meteorol., 136, 108–113] ignores the interplay between the storage terms and the WPL corrections. In this note we develop an expression for the vertical convective velocity that accounts for the effect of both the ‘steady state’ and unsteady ‘storage’ WPL terms on the flux of a trace gas like CO₂ measured with an open path sensor and sonic anemometer. The expression is derived using the mass density rather than the mixing ratio so that the eddy fluxes take the conventional covariance form that is commonly used in turbulence textbooks.     

密度修正对冬小麦/夏玉米轮作田潜热、CO2通量及其能量闭合度的影响

本文利用涡度相关技术对青岛农业大学现代农业科技示范园试验站2013—2014年冬小麦/夏玉米轮作田与大气之间CO_2、水汽和能量交换进行测量,分别对潜热和CO_2通量进行两种密度修正(WPL修正和Liu修正)并进行对比,计算了两种密度修正前后冬小麦/夏玉米轮作田的能量闭合度。结果表明:WPL修正与Liu修正可以提高潜热通量,WPL修正后夏玉米田潜热通量约提高6%,冬小麦田约提高2%;Liu修正后夏玉米田提高不足1%,冬小麦田提高约2%。因此WPL修正对于夏玉米田潜热的修正效果明显优于Liu修正,而对冬小麦田潜热修正两种方法效果相同。两种修正方法对于CO_2通量具有降低的修正效果,WPL修正后夏玉米田和冬小麦田CO_2通量分别降低3%和4%;Liu修正后夏玉米田和冬小麦田CO_2分别降低2%和3%。可以看出,WPL修正和Liu修正对CO_2通量修正前后差别非常小(差距均为1%)。通过对青岛地区冬小麦/夏玉米轮作田能量闭合度的分析,发现密度修正可以提高能量闭合度,但不同下垫面有不同的修正效果。裸地情况下,WPL修正可以提高能量闭合度约2.53%~9.76%,夏玉米田为4.05%,冬小麦田为1.35%;而Liu修正对裸地能量闭合度的提高小于2.53%,对夏玉米田和冬小麦田提高约为1.35%。显然WPL修正对于能量闭合度的修正幅度大于Liu修正。能量闭合度大小关系为裸地Ⅰ(夏玉米出苗前)裸地Ⅱ(冬小麦出苗前)夏玉米田冬小麦田。     

超声波果树冠层测量定位算法与试验

本文利用姿态航向参考系统、RTK-DGPS和超声波传感器,研究超声波果树冠层扫描时探测点在大地坐标系下的定位问题,建立了定位算法以校正车身倾斜对测量点位置计算的影响。文中考虑了车体的位置和姿态角信息以及超声波传感器安装的位置角度关系,利用一次、二次坐标转换建立算法模型,求解得到超声波探测点的绝对坐标位置。并利用农用拖拉机进行了直线行走试验和果树冠层扫描试验,其中的直线行走试验验证了校正模型的正确性。试验表明：通过姿态角和位置信息等建立的校正模型,消除了车体姿态角变化的影响,能正确解算作业车上任意点的大地坐标位置和冠层上超声波传感器探测点的大地坐标位置,使作业车辆在不平路面上工作时仍能准确地测绘出果树冠层形状。     

基于电动方向盘的拖拉机自动导航转向控制方法

为提高轮式拖拉机自动导航过程中转向控制的精度与稳定性,该研究以雷沃欧豹M704-2H拖拉机作为试验平台,采用电动方向盘作为转向执行机构,分析转向机械间隙对控制精度的影响,针对转向间隙特性设计转向控制算法。首先,为了获得准确的转向角,利用GNSS(global navigation satellite system)与二轮车模型快速标定虚拟轮转角,标定结果表明：虚拟轮转角的最大误差为1.3°,平均误差为0.11°。然后,对转向系统的机械间隙进行分析,设计一种带有间隙补偿的模糊PD(proportional derivative)转向控制算法,并在Simulink中验证算法的可行性。实车试验结果表明,该算法跟踪方波转角信号的响应时间为1.1 s,最大稳态误差为0.65°,平均稳态绝对误差为0.132°。跟踪正弦波转角信号的平均延时为0.5 s,最大误差为1.91°,平均绝对误差为1.09°。与无间隙补偿算法相比,有间隙补偿算法跟踪方波信号最大稳态误差减小了0.022°,平均稳态绝对误差减少了0.112°,角度误差在±0.2°内的时间提升了71%;跟踪正弦波信号最大误差减小了0.68°,平均绝对误差减小0.23°。田间直线导航转向控制试验结果表明,转角跟踪的绝对平均误差为0.61°,最大跟踪误差为2.82°,转向控制跟踪精度较高,稳定性好,满足导航作业需求。     

风力机翼型气动力非定常特性对湍流的敏感性

大气湍流是风力机非定常特性的主要诱因,该研究基于CDRFG(consistent discretizing random flow generation)方法生成湍流入口边界,采用大涡模拟（large eddy simulation, LES）研究风力机翼型气动力非定常特性对湍流的敏感性。结果表明：翼型前缘区域对湍流来流较为敏感,而中部及尾缘区域几乎不受湍流的影响。攻角分别为2°、8°和14°时,吸力面从前缘点到约0.5、0.3和0.1倍弦长位置处表面压力的标准差较均匀来流时幅值增大,表明小攻角时翼型吸力面上压力脉动受湍流影响的区域较大。来流湍流强度分别为9.3%、6.5%和4.8%时,2°攻角下翼型升力系数的标准差是其均匀来流时的6.36、5.42和4.90倍;8°攻角下是其均匀来流时的3.95、3.33和3.02倍;14°攻角下是其均匀来流时的1.78、1.63和1.40倍;表明小攻角时湍流引起的升力系数脉动特性较大攻角时更加显著。翼型前缘点脉动压力的功率谱曲线与湍流来流速度的功率谱曲线在整个频域区间趋势一致,表明前缘点压力的脉动特性主要取决于湍流来流的脉动特性,沿翼型弦向逐渐往后...     

MEXICO风轮的气动性能预测

动量叶素法（blade element momentum,BEM）和计算流体力学方法（computational fluid dynamics,CFD）是预测风力机气动性能的常用方法,本文基于商用MATLAB和CFX软件,对MEXICO（Model Experiments In Controlled Conditions）风轮5种风速的轴向入流工况分别采用BEM和CFD方法进行气动性能预测,其中BEM方法计算时采用Shen叶尖修正,CFD方法选用SST紊流模型求解三维雷诺时均方程。研究表明,BEM和CFD方法计算的攻角最大相对误差分别为-0.402、0.099,试验获得的来流攻角沿叶片径向分布基本处于2种方法获得的结果之间,且在叶尖处更接近CFD计算的结果;试验获得的叶片轴向力沿叶片径向分布与2种方法的预测结果基本吻合,BEM和CFD 2种方法计算的轴向力最大相对误差分别为-0.139、-0.096,当叶片进入失速状态后,BEM方法计算的切向力最大相对误差达到-0.471,表明BEM方法的预测精度有待进一步提高,研究成果可为工程模型的修正与开发提供参考。     

考虑攻角范围的垂直轴风力机叶片翼型优化设计

为解决目前垂直轴风力机叶片翼型设计都是在单一攻角下设计,而忽略了垂直轴风力机运行时叶片攻角变化范围大的问题。该研究提出一定攻角范围下垂直轴风力机叶片翼型廓线优化方法,首先采用类函数与B样条函数相结合的方法来表征翼型气动外形,以一定攻角范围下的切向力系数之和作为叶片翼型优化的目标函数。进一步利用粒子群算法并耦合翼型气动性能预测软件RFOIL对H型垂直轴风力机叶片翼型气动外形进行优化设计。最后从风能利用率、力矩系数、涡量分布和速度分布这4个方面讨论优化翼型较初始翼型的优越性。结果表明：相比原始垂直轴风力机,新型垂直轴风力机翼型能有效提高风力机的力矩系数及功率系数,其最大功率系数为0.362,提高了8.45%。此研究对于如何设计高性能垂直轴风力机翼型具有很好的借鉴意义。     

Model considerations for the use of passive sampling techniques to determine trace gas concentrations and flux densities

A number of theoretical and practical difficulties arise in the calculation of flux densities for chemical species which are measured using instrumentation with a low resolution in time. Whenever passive samplers, denuders or filters are used to measure the atmospheric concentrations required, the use of mean concentrations and mean wind velocities may lead to incorrect mean fluxes due to the neglection of the averaging rules for fluctuating entities. We investigated the potential biases resulting from calculations of average concentrations and vertical flux densities for three types of passive samplers, two of which are sensitive to wind velocity, using realistic data sets for concentrations, flux densities and meteorological parameters obtained from comprehensive field measurements. The detection of average concentrations with wind sensitive samplers and anemometers requires adequate 4sampling times to minimize the bias. They are applicable when the resolution in time is weeks rather than days. Flux density measurements yield unsatisfactory results with all types of samplers unless several pairs of samplers can be operated separately depending upon the atmospheric conductivity.     

模拟复杂地形的喷雾靶标激光检测与三维重构

喷雾靶标的检测是精密变量喷雾的重要环节,激光传感器以其精度高、速度快、不受光照干扰等特点被广泛应用于精密变量喷雾研究中。为了消除激光传感器姿态角的偏移对喷雾靶标检测的影响,获取精确的喷雾靶标外形尺寸信息以及三维重构图像,进行了室内模拟复杂地形激光检测矫正研究。该文基于UTM-30LX型激光传感器搭建了室内靶标检测试验平台,模拟复杂路况设计了滚转角、俯仰角和偏航角等姿态角偏移检测试验,提出了采用极坐标值与三角函数重新匹配、检测帧与检测点重新组合和深度值系数矫正等3种姿态角偏移矫正方法。首先对树形雕花板进行单一姿态角偏移检测试验,选取适合的检测距离与行进速度,对每种姿态角的多个偏移角度进行多次重复试验,然后矫正所获取的数据信息,对矫正后的目标尺寸进行误差分析并重构目标三维图像。再以仿真树为试验对象,验证在3种姿态角度同时改变时矫正方法的有效性。试验结果显示树形雕花板高度、宽度、树冠高度等尺寸相对误差均小于5%,仿真树相应参数尺寸相对误差均小于10%,满足变量喷雾检测的精度要求。     

叶片前缘磨损形貌特征对风力机翼型气动性能的影响

根据实际风电场中风力机叶片前缘磨损在不同阶段的形貌特征,通过对DU 96-W-180风力机翼型前缘进行改型,建立几何模型,结合SST k-ω湍流模型求解RANS方程,分析了翼型的升力、阻力及流场特性,研究了风力机翼型前缘磨损形貌特征对其气动性能的影响。结果表明,前缘磨损特征为砂眼和小坑时,对翼型的升、阻力系数影响较小;而前缘磨损特征为脱层时,对翼型的升阻特性影响显著,尤其随着攻角增加,升力系数大幅减小,阻力系数急剧增大,并且随着磨损的加剧,减小和增加的幅度逐渐增大。前缘磨损加剧了翼型吸力面尾缘附近的流动分离,使分离点前移;砂眼和小坑对气流在翼型前缘的流动影响较小;脱层对翼型前缘附近流动影响很大,导致翼型表面出现台阶流,气流绕过台阶先发生分离,然后再次附着翼型表面流动。     

低风速适用型水平轴风力机气动性能优化与试验

为开发低风资源适用型风力机,以100 W水平轴风力机为研究对象,分析不同设计叶尖速比和设计攻角对风轮变风况气动性能的影响;考虑低风速地区风资源数据统计特点,以提高年发电量和降低启动风速为目标,以设计叶尖速比、设计攻角、叶片弦长和扭角为变量,采用NSGA-II算法进行全局多目标气动寻优;开展风力机性能测试试验。结果表明,优化后年发电量提高了9.14%,风轮启动转矩提高了9.62%;在不同负载条件下,优化叶片功率输出均有明显提高,启动风速由3.84 m/s降低到3.03 m/s;该方法避免设计陷入局部优化,提供一种低启动风速与高功率输出矛盾解决方案,为低风速水平轴风力机设计与应用提供重要参考。     

基于TM影像的福州市地表植被变化分析

利用多时相TM影像,通过变化检测和假彩色合成方法分析福州市1989-2000年的植被变化。在影像解译中对所包含的一部分非由植被变化引起的伪信息,依次采用阈值法和掩膜法将伪变化信息剔除。结果表明,用不同时相NDVI影像进行假彩色合成可以直观地反映地表植被的变化。同时通过对伪信息的剔除,提高了图像的精度。福州市在1988-2000年植被覆盖率总体上有明显提高。但部分地区由于人为干扰,植被退化较严重。     

Comparing laser-based open- and closed-path gas analyzers to measure methane fluxes using the eddy covariance method

Closed- and open-path methane gas analyzers are used in eddy covariance systems to compare three potential methane emitting ecosystems in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (CA, USA): a rice field, a peatland pasture and a restored wetland. The study points out similarities and differences of the systems in field experiments and data processing. The closed-path system, despite a less intrusive placement with the sonic anemometer, required more care and power. In contrast, the open-path system appears more versatile for a remote and unattended experimental site. Overall, the two systems have comparable minimum detectable limits, but synchronization between wind speed and methane data, air density corrections and spectral losses have different impacts on the computed flux covariances. For the closed-path analyzer, air density effects are less important, but the synchronization and spectral losses may represent a problem when fluxes are small or when an undersized pump is used. For the open-path analyzer air density corrections are greater, due to spectroscopy effects and the classic Webb-Pearman-Leuning correction. Comparison between the 30-min fluxes reveals good agreement in terms of magnitudes between open-path and closed-path flux systems. However, the scatter is large, as consequence of the intensive data processing which both systems require.     

融合激光三维探测与IMU姿态角实时矫正的喷雾靶标检测

基于高精度激光传感器的喷雾靶标特征检测是精准施药变量决策的重要依据。为了改善复杂地形条件对车载激光靶标检测的影响,进行了车载激光喷雾靶标检测与矫正研究。该文基于惯性测量单元(inertial measurement unit,IMU)与UTM-30LX型激光传感器搭建靶标检测试验车,IMU实时获取车体姿态角的偏航角、俯仰角及侧倾角信息,车载激光传感器实时获取目标切面轮廓的极坐标数据。将获取的目标切面轮廓的极坐标数据与试验车姿态角信息相匹配,通过矫正算法获取精确的目标外形尺寸信息并重构目标三维图像。试验设计首先对长方体柜子与仿真树进行车体单一动态俯仰角的检测试验,然后以仿真树为试验目标,进行车体存在复合动态俯仰角与侧倾角的检测试验,最后在未知地形条件下对长方体柜子以及仿真树进行动态姿态角检测与矫正试验。利用MATLAB软件对数据矫正分析,对矫正后的目标尺寸信息进行误差分析并重构目标三维图像。试验结果显示矫正后长方体柜子的高度、宽度最大相对误差分别为8.89%和8.00%,仿真树的高度、宽度以及树冠高度最大相对误差分别为5.63%、10.00%和5.00%,矫正效果良好,验证了矫正算法的有效性。     

Manganese extracted from different chemical fractions of bulk and rhizosphere soil as affected by method of sample preparation

Abstract

Rhizosphere soils had higher amounts of ‘readily soluble’, ‘weakly adsorbed’, ‘carbonate bound’ and ‘specifically adsorbed’ Mn, but had lower amounts of ‘oxide‐Mn’, than did bulk soils. This observation was true regardless of whether the comparison was based on values within moist or air‐dried treatments. Observed trends in Mn distribution between different soil fractions were qualitatively similar regardless of method of sample preparation. However, there were substantial quantitative differences depending on the method of sample preparation. Air‐dried samples increased significantly in the ‘oxide‐Mn’ fraction and decreased in its soluble and adsorbed fractions relative to moist soil samples. There was a significant effect of method of air‐drying on the distribution of Mn in rhizosphere samples. Samples that were extracted moist at first and then air‐dried accumulated more adsorbed Mn and were depleted in ‘oxide‐Mn’ relative to samples that were air‐dried initially. There was a significant rhizosphere x air‐drying interaction. Air‐drying of some rhizosphere samples resulted in a significant underestimation of the ‘readily soluble’, ‘specifically adsorbed’, and ‘oxide‐Mn’ fractions beyond the overall effect of air‐drying. The results of this study suggested that soil samples used for Mn analyses be extracted immediately in a moist condition rather than air‐dried, particularly for analyses of rhizosphere soil samples.     

基于浸入边界法的翼型俯仰振摆动态特性

为了探究翼型振摆运动时的动态特性以及升力波动形成机制,采用基于浸入边界法的自编求解器,对NACA0012翼型在1000雷诺数作不同起始攻角、不同振摆频率、不同振摆幅值的俯仰振摆运动进行了直接数值模拟,并分析了升力系数的波动特性和其与流场演变的相关性.结果表明:翼型的高频振摆(2.92 Hz)较低频振摆(1.46 Hz)...     

基于频谱分析法的超声波流量计流道结构优化

大尺度漩涡对超声波流量计测量误差有直接影响,该文通过频谱分析法定量研究了63 mm超声波传播路径上各点的湍流脉动频率和特征长度,得到了大尺度漩涡的分布规律,明确了大尺度旋涡比较集中地出现在超声波流量计声波传播路径的中后部的现状,为超声波流量计的流道结构优化提供了重要依据。提出用"井"字形网栅限制声道中后部漩涡尺度的优化方案。研究了3种网栅布置方案(方案1:设置单层网栅于63 mm声波传播路径中后部;方案2:设置3层均布网栅分别位于声波路径4等分点处;方案3:以10 mm间距设置3层均布网栅于声波传播路径中后部)对大尺度旋涡的抑制效果。结果表明方案3效果最好,在Re=50 000条件下,湍流误差仅为0.18%,且压力损失较小。因此,该优化设计有良好的工农业应用前景。     

Production potential of cavendish cultivars (Musa spp. AAA) under greenhouse and field conditions in subtropical areas of Turkey

The objective of this study was to evaluate the production potential of banana cultivars, ‘Grand Nain’, ‘Petit Nain’, ‘Poyo’, ‘Williams’ and ‘Basrai’, as alternatives to the ‘Dwarf Cavendish’ for open-field and greenhouse cultivation in subtropical conditions. Stem circumference, stem height, total leaf number, bunch stalk circumference, days from shooting to harvest, number of hands per bunch, number of fingers per bunch, finger circumference, finger length and bunch weight were measured in open-field and greenhouse cultivation. Cultivars ‘Williams’ and ‘Grand Nain’ were superior to ‘Dwarf Cavendish’ in greenhouse cultivation, while these two cultivars and ‘Petit Nain’ and ‘Basrai’ were superior to ‘Dwarf Cavendish’ in open-field cultivation. ‘Poyo’ was not suitable for greenhouse cultivation because of its excessive height and for open-field cultivation due to its sensitivity to wind damage. Greenhouse cultivation of bananas was superior to open-field cultivation for all cultivars with increases in yield of 19 to 28% according to the cultivar.     

A re-examination of closed flux chamber methods for the measurement of trace gas emissions from soils to the atmosphere

The most widely used method for measuring the emission of a trace gas such as N₂O from soil to the atmosphere involves the accumulation of the gas under closed chambers followed by sampling and analysis (by gas chromatography or infrared methods). These chambers can affect the gas exchange, and so improved designs have been proposed. We have tested their performance. One design includes a vent tube to allow ambient pressure fluctuations to occur also inside the chamber. We tested it against a sealed version on two different grassland sites during N₂O peak emissions in spring 1997. On a welldrained soil with a fairly large air permeability vented chambers yielded fluxes as much as five times those of sealed chambers, depending on wind speed. By contrast, on a heavier and wetter soil with smaller air permeability vented chambers averaged only 88% of the fluxes observed with sealed chambers. The effects of venting cannot be explained solely on the basis of mean pressure differences inside and outside the chamber. It seems more likely that wind blowing over the vent depressurizes the chamber (Venturi effect), resulting in significant gas flow from the more permeable soil into the interior of the chamber. The opposite trend for the less permeable soil suggests that diffusion losses through the vent tube are greater than the increase in concentration due to soil gas flow. Venting can create larger errors than the ones it is supposed to overcome.     

A multi-site analysis of random error in tower-based measurements of carbon and energy fluxes

Measured surface-atmosphere fluxes of energy (sensible heat, H, and latent heat, LE) and CO₂ (FCO₂) represent the “true” flux plus or minus potential random and systematic measurement errors. Here, we use data from seven sites in the AmeriFlux network, including five forested sites (two of which include “tall tower” instrumentation), one grassland site, and one agricultural site, to conduct a cross-site analysis of random flux error. Quantification of this uncertainty is a prerequisite to model-data synthesis (data assimilation) and for defining confidence intervals on annual sums of net ecosystem exchange or making statistically valid comparisons between measurements and model predictions.We differenced paired observations (separated by exactly 24 h, under similar environmental conditions) to infer the characteristics of the random error in measured fluxes. Random flux error more closely follows a double-exponential (Laplace), rather than a normal (Gaussian), distribution, and increase as a linear function of the magnitude of the flux for all three scalar fluxes. Across sites, variation in the random error follows consistent and robust patterns in relation to environmental variables. For example, seasonal differences in the random error for H are small, in contrast to both LE and FCO₂, for which the random errors are roughly three-fold larger at the peak of the growing season compared to the dormant season. Random errors also generally scale with R_n (H and LE) and PPFD (FCO₂). For FCO₂ (but not H or LE), the random error decreases with increasing wind speed. Data from two sites suggest that FCO₂ random error may be slightly smaller when a closed-path, rather than open-path, gas analyzer is used.