A multivariate approach to automatic grading of Pinus sylvestris sawn timber

Abstract

The objective of this study was to create an easier way to handle the often complicated and intricate situations with which the operator of an automatic grading system is faced each time a change to the grading rules is proposed. The scope of the study was the possibility of a holistic method of automatic appearance grading of sawn wood similar to manual grading and based on multivariate statistics. The study was based on 90 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sawlogs. The logs were sawn and the boards were scanned and manually graded. The result of the manual grading was defined as the true grade. Models for prediction of board grade based on aggregated defect variables were calibrated using partial least squares regression. The classification based on the multivariate models resulted in 80–85% of the boards being correctly graded according to the manual grading. In conclusion, this paper shows that a multivariate statistical approach for grading timber is a possible way to simplify the process of grading and to customize the grading rules when using an automatic grading system.     

Multivariate product adapted grading of Scots Pine sawn timber for an industrial customer,part 2: Robustness to disturbances

ABSTRACT

Holistic-subjective automatic grading (HSAG) of sawn timber by an industrial customer's product outcome is possible through the use of multivariate partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), shown by part one of this two-part study. This second part of the study aimed at testing the robustness to disturbances of such an HSAG system when grading Scots Pine sawn timber partially covered in dust. The set of 308 clean planks from part one of this study, and a set of 310 dusty planks, that by being stored inside a sawmill accumulated a layer of dust, were used. Cameras scanned each plank in a sawmill's automatic sorting system that detected selected feature variables. The planks were then split and processed at a planing mill, and the product grade was correlated to the measured feature variables by partial least squares regression. Prediction models were tested using 5-fold cross-validation in four tests and compared to the reference result of part one of this study. The tests showed that the product adapted HSAG could grade dusty planks with similar or lower grading accuracy compared to grading clean planks. In tests grading dusty planks, the disturbing effect of the dust was difficult to capture through training.     

Comparing Grade Classification Criteria for Automatic Sorting of Norway Spruce Saw Logs

Grades of centre and side boards from 277 Norway spruce logs were combined to form binary response variables, here denoted as sorting criteria. Four different grading systems were tested. The log geometry variables unevenness, butt taper and top taper were used in logistic regression models. The classification accuracy ranged from 58 to 83%. The accuracy was higher for visual stress grade criteria than for more complex criteria such as the Nordic timber grading rules. The number of tested criteria and thus possible comparisons limited the ability to establish significant differences. The low associations between board grades within logs and between graders, highlight key issues when developing and improving automatic log sorting systems.     

基于表面主要缺陷的锯材外观质量量化评价方法

【目的】提出一种锯材外观质量量化评价方法,探索锯材外观质量数字化检测与评价分级的可行性,为实现锯材外观质量的实时在线检测提供基础理论和技术支撑。【方法】建立由密闭暗室、光源、工业相机等组成的锯材表面缺陷在线检测系统,在稳定光环境下采集样本锯材彩色图像。基于图像处理技术开发软件试验系统,实现对锯材缺陷的检测和识别。分别建立节疤、孔洞和裂缝缺陷外观质量评价模型,并据此提出外观质量综合量化评价方法;通过与国家标准对照,验证本研究提出方法的科学性和可行性。【结果】量化评价方法与锯材材质指标等级进行对照,二者线性相关系数为0.85;锯材材质指标等级除了2级和3级对应的综合量化评价值分布比较分散、等级之间数据有部分交叉外,其他等级之间对应的综合量化评价值分布几乎没有交叉。量化评价方法与集成材层板外观质量要求进行对照,二者线性相关系数为0.88;锯材材质指标等级4级对应的综合量化评价值分布比较集中,与其他等级之间没有数据交叉;锯材材质指标等级1级、2级和3级相邻等级对应的综合量化评价值分布比较分散,等级之间数据有部分交叉,不相邻等级间数据分布没有交叉。【结论】综合量化评价值与依据有关国家标准确定的锯材材质指标等级、集成材层板外观质量要求的线性相关性相对较好,可为实现锯材外观质量数字化检测与评价奠定基础;通过调整模型有关影响系数,可满足不同树种和不同应用需求,以达到较好评价效果。     

Grading and mechanical characterization of small-diameter round chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) timber from thinning operations

ABSTRACT

In forestry, thinning operations result in the extraction of young trees with small dimensions. The evaluation of the potential end use of these small-diameter logs (currently mainly used as poles or fence posts) for added-value products such as structural timber is of considerable economic and industrial interests. In the present work, 216 pieces of small-diameter logs of chestnut timber obtained from thinning operations were evaluated in order to determine their mechanical properties and assess various visual or non-destructive grading systems. The two visual standards evaluated (EN 1927 and DIN 4074) were ineffective in grading according to mechanical properties. On the other hand, a grading system based on a non-destructive measurement (acoustic wave velocity) resulted in better classification by structural quality. The characteristic values of the small-diameter round chestnut timber, determined according to the standards EN 384 and EN 338, achieved similar values as standard rectangular sawn timber with respect to modulus of elasticity and density, and higher values for bending strength.     

Combined production of sawn timber and firewood billets at a birch sawmill in Finland: A simulation approach

Abstract

Growing markets for chopped firewood have created alternative uses for the by-products of sawmills. Based on empirical data and simulated results, the potential of birch (Betula pendula Roth, Betula pubescens Ehrh.) from commercial thinnings for combined industrial production of sawn timber and firewood billets was investigated. In the simulations, different sawing patterns were used for logs intended to combine production of sawn timber and billets for chopped firewood (‘sawlogs’), and for logs intended only to firewood production (‘firewood logs’). Finally, economical feasibility analysis was done concerning the differences between the sawmills’ traditional business concept and the novel concept combining sawn wood and firewood production. The bucking results for the volume yield of different timber assortments varied only slightly between the different bucking options, i.e. the combinations of timber assortments. The main differences in the volumes of timber assortments were due to the stand type where the birch trees were sampled (planted, naturally regenerated, mixed birch–spruce). In the sawing procedure, the output of sawn timber varied between 24% and 42% of the log volume in the sawlogs, depending on the log diameter class. As the volume yield of sawn timber and firewood billets was counted together in the case of sawlogs, the log consumption was c. 1.75 m³ of roundwood per 1 m³ of sawn timber and firewood billets. In the case of the firewood logs, the log consumption rate was considerably lower, only c. 1.35. The economic calculations showed that using the firewood approach in sawing may increase the net added value of products by €1.9–5.4 m^?3 of logs, depending on their diameter class. As a conclusion, parallel production of sawn timber and firewood from logs from the first and second commercial thinning of birch-dominated stands is a concept that could work as an alliance between a sawmiller and a firewood entrepreneur. The concept could be competitive compared with both traditional sawmilling and production of chopped firewood.     

Multivariate product adapted grading of Scots pine sawn timber for an industrial customer,part 1: Method development

ABSTRACT

Rule-based automatic grading (RBAG) of sawn timber is a common type of sorting system used in sawmills, which is intricate to customise for specific customers. This study further develops an automatic grading method to grade sawn timber according to a customer's resulting product quality. A sawmill's automatic sorting system used cameras to scan the 308 planks included in the study. Each plank was split at a planing mill into three boards, each planed, milled, and manually graded as desirable or not. The plank grade was correlated by multivariate partial least squares regression to aggregated variables, created from the sorting system's measurements at the sawmill. Grading models were trained and tested independently using 5-fold cross-validation to evaluate the grading accuracy of the holistic-subjective automatic grading (HSAG), and compared with a re-substitution test. Results showed that using the HSAG method at the sawmill graded on average 74% of planks correctly, while 83% of desirable planks were correctly identified. Results implied that a sawmill sorting station could grade planks according to a customer's product quality grade with similar accuracy to HSAG conforming with manual grading of standardised sorting classes, even when the customer is processing the planks further.     

Relationships between longitudinal and radial Picea genera sound vibration parameters

Longitudinal sawn wood are usually selected as samples in the study of sound properties of a musical instrument board. But in real production, radial sawn timber are cut and are also widely used as vibration component. Therefore, it is very important to evaluate the vibration properties of the board in the round, especially for the sound radiation characteristic of radial sawn timber and its relationship to longitudinal sawn timber. However, for the national and international experts, researches on radial sawn timber and its role and function in sound emission have not yet been developed. This paper describes a study of seven important spruces that grow up in the Sichuan and Heilongjiang provinces of China, and one Picea sitchensis specimen from North America. Under the high bending vibration mode, resonance frequency and other parameters of longitudinal and radial wood were tested. Analysis result disclosed the relationship between longitudinal and radial wood vibration property. An important conclusion of wood for musical instruments with proper anisotropy, fine toughness, and weak shear of longitudinal and radial vibration was inducted. __________ Translated from Scientia Silvae Sinicae, 2006, 42(3): 21–24 [译自: 林业科学, 2006, 42(3): 21–24]     

云杉属木材纵向和径向声振动特性参数关系的研究

采集7种我国具有代表性的云杉属木材及1种作对比用的美国产西加云杉试件,通过纵、横向木材试件在高次振动模式下的试验,测量木材各项声振动参数.研究发现:纵向材与径向材振动参数比之间存在着一定的相关性,据此可以选择各向异性适中,韧性好,纵向、径向振动受剪切影响小的木材制作乐器的音板.     

Log sawing position optimization using computed tomography scanning

When disjoining a log, several factors affect the value of the sawn timber. There are log features, such as outer shape, knots, rot, and so on. There are also sawing parameters, such as sawing pattern, log position, and so on. If full information about log features is available, sawing parameters can be adapted in order to maximize product value in sawmills. This is soon possible, since computed tomography (CT) scanners for the sawmill industry are being realized. This study aimed at investigating how CT data can be used to choose rotational position, parallel displacement, and skew of sawlogs, to maximize the value of the sawn products. The study was made by sawing simulation of 269 CT scanned logs of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] H. Karst.). The results showed that value recovery could be improved by 13% in average, compared to a sawing position based on log outer shape, and 21% compared to sawing logs centered and horns down. It can be concluded that a CT scanner, used in a sawline to optimize sawing parameters, has a large potential for increasing value recovery and thus profit.     

原木锯材产品质量统检结果与讨论

经国家技术监督局同意,林业部组织了全国林业系统国有企业原木、锯材产品质量统检。通过对全国九个省（区）的林业系统国有企业原木、锯材产品质量统检,结果表明原木规格平均合格率９４．１３％,等级平均合格率９８．７８％,合格批次占８８．５０％,锯材规格平均合格率８７．６２％,等级平均合格率９８．５５％,合格批次占９２．８６％。     

Customer adapted grading of Scots pine sawn timber using a multivariate method

To define new grading rules, or to customize the ones in use in a rule-based automatic grading (RBAG) system of boards, is a time-consuming job for a sawmill engineer. This has the effect that changes are rarely made. The objective of this study was to continue the development of a method that replaces the calibration of grading rule settings by a holistic-subjective automatic grading, using multivariate models. The objective was also to investigate if this approach can improve sawmill profitability and at the same time have a satisfied customer. For the study, 323 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) boards were manually graded according to the preferences of an important customer. That is, a customer that regularly purchases significant volumes of sawn timber. This manual grading was seen as reference grading in this work. The same boards were also scanned and graded by a RBAG system, calibrated for the same customer. Multivariate models for prediction of board grade based on aggregated knot variables, obtained from the scanning, were calibrated using partial least squares regression. The results show that prediction of board grades by the multivariate models were more correct, with respect to the manual grading, than the grading by the RBAG system. The prediction of board grades based on multivariate models resulted in 76–87% of the boards graded correctly, according to the manual grading, while the corresponding number was 63% for the RBAG system.     

Predicting spiral grain by computed tomography of Norway spruce

Spiral grain is a feature of wood that affects the shape of the sawn timber. Boards sawn from logs with a large spiral grain have a tendency to twist when the moisture content changes. The aim of this study was to investigate the possibility of predicting spiral grain based on variables that should be measurable with an X-ray LogScanner. The study was based on 49 Norway spruce (Picea abies) logs from three stands in Sweden. The logs were scanned with a computed tomography (CT) scanner every 10mm along the log. Concentric surfaces at various distances from the pith were then reconstructed from the stack of CT images. The spiral grain angle was measured in these concentric surface images, and a statistical model for predicting spiral grain was calibrated using partial least squares (PLS) regression. The PLS model predicts the spiral grain of a log at a distance 50mm from the pith based on different variables that should be measurable with an industrial X-ray LogScanner. The result was a PLS model withR ²=0.52 for the training set andR ²=0.37 for the test set. We concluded that it should be possible to predict the spiral grain of a log based on variables measured by an industrial X-ray LogScanner. The most important variables for predicting spiral grain were measures of sapwood content, variation in the ratio between the heartwood and log areas, and the standard deviation for the mean log density in 10mm thick cross slices along the log. The accuracy when sorting the logs into two groups with spiral grain of 2.0° and of <2.0°, respectively, was 84% of the correctly sorted logs.     

Simulated yield and quality distribution of sawn timber from final felling in a Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] stand with varying thinning regimes: A case study

Abstract

An integrated simulation tool, formed by integrating the InnoSIM sawing simulation system with the RetroSTEM simulator, was used to convert available wood raw materials from final felling into sawn timber, allowing for calculation of the three-dimensional wood properties of individual stems (stem geometry, heartwood formation, knottiness) as well as the volume, quality and value of sawn timber in a Norway spruce stand with different thinning regimes (unthinned, normal and intensively thinned). Based on the input data of sawing patterns, the simulations indicate that there are relatively small differences (<8%) in the volume yield (m³ha^?1) of sawn goods resulting from sawlogs available from final felling with different thinning practices. However, intensive thinning yielded the largest stem diameters and the greatest volumes (m³ha^?1) of large-sized centre goods (thickness: 50, 63, 75 mm) of rather poor quality. Normal thinning yielded the largest volume of A-grade side boards and centre goods (m³ha^?1), as well as the best total value ([euro]ha^?1) of sawn timber. Differences observed in sawn timber quality distribution can contribute to even more significant variation in value yields, if pricing mechanisms of timber products change to favour higher grade timber products.     

Potential for increasing volume yield by reducing planing allowance

About half the volume of sawlogs ends up as sawn and planed timber. The rest is lost due to drying shrinkage or is turned into by products. As the raw material is a major expense for a sawmill, it is important to reduce waste. To investigate how much the volume yield in the production of sawn and planed timber could be increased by reducing the target dimensions in the sawing stage in a sawmill, two groups of sawn timber were planed under similar conditions. One group consisted of sawn Scots pine timber with a large variation in twist. The other group consisted of sawn Norway spruce timber planed under different pressure settings. Using X-ray images, the minimum dimension for avoiding planer misses was calculated for each board, to find the smallest green target dimension. This was compared to actual measured dimensions. It was found that most sawn timber had unnecessarily large dimensions, and it was also found that a reduction in the target dimensions could increase the volume yield for sawn and planed timber by more than 3 percentage points. Boards with large twist would however need a higher planing allowance. The effect of the planer pressure setting was negligible.     

Influence of growth stresses and material properties on distortion of sawn timber — numerical investigation

? The board distortion that occurs during the sawing and the drying process causes major problems in the utilisation of sawn timber. The distortion is highly influenced by parameters such as spiral grain angle, modulus of elasticity, shrinkage, growth stresses and sawing pattern.

? In this study a finite element simulation of log sawing and timber drying was performed to study how these parameters interact to affect board distortion. A total of 81 logs with different material combinations were simulated. From each simulated log four boards with different annual ring orientation were studied.

? The results showed that the elastic modulus, shrinkage coefficient and growth stresses had a large influence on the final bow and spring deformation. After sawing of the log into boards, the release of growth stresses was the main contributor to the bow and spring deformation. For boards with low modulus of elasticity, the bending distortion became larger than for the boards with high modulus of elasticity. The twist deformation was very small after sawing but increased significantly during drying of the boards. The results showed that spiral grain angle and the board location within the log were the main contributors to the twist deformation.

     

Predicting lumber grade and by-product yields for Scots pine trees

The purpose of this study was to develop models for estimating yields of lumber grades and by-products of individual Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees using stem and crown dimensions as explanatory variables. Two separate data sets were used: (1) one simulated by the process-based growth model, PipeQual, which provides information about stem form and branch properties. The model was used to predict the 3D structure of Scots pine stems from thinning regimes of varying intensity and rotation periods and (2) an empirical data set with detailed 3D measurements of stem structure. The stems were sawn using the WoodCim sawing simulator and the yields and grades of the individual sawn pieces, as well as by-products, were recorded. The sawn timber was classified on A, B, C and D-grades for side and centre boards separately (Nordic Timber grading). By-products were pulpwood, sawmill chips, sawdust and bark.     

Structural development of Pinus sylvestrís stands with varying initial density: A preliminary model for quality of sawn timber as affected by silvicultural measures

The effects of stand density, thinning and pruning on the quality of sawn timber of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) were studied based on a computer model. Procedures for the tree growth and crown structure produce a tree, whose properties in terms of location, dimensions and quality (living, dead) of branches are known for any moment of the selected rotation. Consequently, the size, quality (living, dead) and location of knots in sawn timber are recognizable allowing the grading of sawn pieces. The model computations showed that the natural dynamics of the crown system in narrowly‐spaced stands could yield sawn timber nearly of the same quality as resulted from pruning in widely‐spaced stands. Thinning increased the branch growth and the branchiness of the wood yielding lower grade for sawn pieces, respectively.     

Influence of initial plant density on sawn timber properties for Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco)

? Context

Mechanical wood properties are increasingly relevant for structural applications and are influenced by growing space availability. Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) has an increasing market share in Europe and is mainly processed to sawn timber.

? Aim

A sample of 164 thinning trees was taken from two Douglas-fir long-term forestry research plots in Germany. The end-use quality of about 2,000 side and center boards was analyzed as a function of initial plant density (1,000, 2,000, and 4,000 trees per hectare) and log position within the stem.

? Methods

Sawn timber quality was described by knottiness, density, modulus of elasticity, and strength. Explanatory parameters were radial position, longitudinal position, and initial plant density. All boards were strength graded visually and by the grading machine GoldenEye-706 using both X-rays for detecting densities and size as well as position of knots and laser interferometry for detecting eigenfrequency (DIN 4074, DIN 2012; EN 14081-2, CEN 2010).

? Results

High plant density led to better mechanical sawn timber quality. Significant differences were especially observed between 1,000 and 2,000 trees per hectare. The yield of machine strength-graded center boards of strength class C24 increased from 50 to 89 % at low and high initial plant density, respectively.

? Conclusion

Foresters are able to improve end-product quality by controlling planting density in particular. The roundwood price that foresters get should be based on the proportion of higher strength classes within logs to give incentives for a more quality-oriented forest management.     

DIE INVLOED VAN RADIALE HARSGEïNFILTREERDE KERNSKEURE OP DIE GESAAGDE OPBRENGS UIT PINUS ELLIOTTII ENGELM.-SAAGBLOKKE / THE EFFECT OF RADIAL RESIN-INFILTRATED SPLITS ON THE YIELD OF SAWN TIMBER FROM PINUS ELLIOTTII ENGELM. SAWLOGS

A number of complaints, regarding the presence of resin-infiltrated splits in seasoned boards produced from Pinus elliottii sawlogs supplied from certain stands in State Forests, led to an investigation to determine the incidence of the defect and to find possible causes.

This paper deals mainly with the study of the first aspect. In the investigation two samples of stems were selected by a semi-random method from one mature stand, being clearfelled, in Entabeni State Forest (Northern Transvaal) and from three stands receiving, or due to receive, their fifth thinning. The clearfelling and thinning had produced logs containing heart shakes and this had given rise to the complaints.

During log preparation it was attempted to prepare as much as possible of the stem length into the longest sawlogs, working as closely as possible to the maximum limits for sweep and knots allowed by the departmental log specifications. This attempt resulted in the preparation of some logs containing slightly more than the permissible defects. Observations were made on stump surfaces of the orientation of shakes, and on log ends of their occurrence higher up in the stem, in an attempt to find a link between shake orientation and the known direction of strong winds, and to determine the height in the stem to which shakes extended from the stump. The orientation study produced no definite proof that wind was responsible, although there were strong indications.

This was followed by sowings up the logs mainly into structural timber, kiln seasoning and grading in two ways, viz A ignoring the resin-infiltrated checks and splits but taking all other defects pertinent to the relevant grades into consideration, and B taking all defects, including the checks and splits into consideration (Table 4). During the grading further measurements were taken on boards containing splits, to determine to what heights in the stem the shakes extended.

From the grading results, total and graded yields of sawn timber were computed, the differences in yields between the two grading procedures being a measure of the incidence and seriousness of the shake defect. Within log classes, (see footnote to Table 2) the yields obtained separately for each 2 cm top U.B. diameter class into which the logs had been segregated prior to sawing, were weighted according to the percentage size distributions of the logs yielded by the clearfelling and thinning operations in the relevant compartments, to obtain a weighted average for the log class.

The heights to which shakes were present in the stems of the two samples are shown in Table 3(a) while their incidence in logs of the various size classes are shown in Table 3(b). It is seen that shakes were more frequent and serious in the larger logs.

The presence of shake in the log samples, taken as a whole, caused only minimal yield losses (Table 4) but had the effect of somewhat reducing average board length (Table 5). However, sawn and graded yields are still excellent and the species should not be discriminated against in afforestation, because of the sporadic occurrence of the defect.

The yield figures should be of some value to sawmillers processing both normal and shake-containing logs of this species.