Effects of extraneous substances, wood density and interlocked grain on fiber saturation point of hardwoods

Samples of nine tropical hardwoods from Peru and sugar maple wood from Quebec were selected for moisture sorption and swelling tests at 25°C. These tests evaluated the fiber saturation point (FSP) by two methods: following adsorption over distilled water, and from the volumetric swelling intersection point. Cold-water and hot-water extractives, sequential cyclohexane, acetone and methanol extracts, ash content, wood density and interlocked grain were also determined on matched samples. The results indicated that adsorption tests over distilled water were not applicable for determining FSP in all wood species. Condensation of water vapor apparently occurred, even though temperature during adsorption was controlled to the nearest 0.01°C. The volumetric swelling intersection point method was judged more appropriate. FSP ranged from 15 to 25% for tropical hardwoods and was 30% for sugar maple wood. FSP was negatively correlated with wood density, acetone extracted fraction, interlocked grain and ash content. These parameters each exerted similar effects on variability in FSP.     

Influence of accessory substances,wood density and interlocked grain on the compressive properties of hardwoods

Wood samples of nine tropical hardwoods from Peru and sugar maple wood from Quebec were selected to perform moisture sorption tests associated with parallel-to-grain and tangential compression tests using a multiple step procedure at 25°C. Cold-water and hot-water extractives, sequential cyclohexane (CYC), acetone (ACE) and methanol (MET) extracts, ash content (ASH), wood density and interlocked grain (IG) were evaluated on matched samples too. Wood density corrected for the accessory substances was by far the major factor positively affecting the compressive properties of tropical hardwoods. The total amount of accessory substances is required in order to establish better relationships between physico–mechanical properties and density of tropical hardwoods. For a given wood density, the ultimate stress in parallel-to-grain compression was higher in tropical hardwoods than in temperate hardwoods. However, the compliance coefficients for both types of woods were quite similar. Sequential extraction with organic solvents was the most suitable method for evaluating the effect of extractives on compressive properties of tropical hardwoods. The CYC and ACE fractions did not contribute to variation in these mechanical properties. The substances dissolved in MET affected positively the compliance coefficient s ₁₁ in parallel-to-grain compression and negatively the compliance coefficient s ₃₃ in tangential compression. The IG decreased the compliance coefficient s ₁₁ but also decreased the ultimate stress in parallel-to-grain compression. Finally, variations in compressive properties that were due to changes in equilibrium moisture content (EMC) were clearly influenced by wood density; denser woods were more sensitive to changes in EMC than lighter woods.     

Influence of moisture sorption history on the swelling of sugar maple wood and some tropical hardwoods

Summary Samples of nine tropical hardwoods from Peru and sugar maple wood from Quebec were selected to perform moisture sorption tests associated with swelling tests at 25 °C. The results demonstrate that, for a given equilibrium moisture content, tangential and radial dimensions, and hence the volume of wood, are greater after desorption than after adsorption. The importance of these differences, so-called second-order effects of moisture sorption, varied with the species and with the direction of swelling. These effects are proportionally greater in the tangential direction of wood than in its radial axis. Finally, two types of samples showed similar swellings for three equilibrium moisture contents.The author wishes to thank Professor M. Goulet for his support and help. This research was supported by the Canadian International Development Agency and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada     

Swelling of wood

Summary The rate and maximum swelling of several North American wood species in water have been obtained with a computer interfaced linear variable displacement transformer. Since wood swells extremely fast in water even at room temperature, this apparatus made it possible for the first time, to obtain accurate rate data on the swelling of wood in water. The strict linear dependence of swelling on the temperature suggests a chemical mechanism. The activation energies obtained from Arrhenius plots ranged from 32.2 KJ/mole for sitka spruce to 47.6 KJ/mole for sugar maple. Although the two hardwoods exhibited greater maximum tangential swelling compared with the two softwoods, the maximum swelling appears to be correlated with the wood density. Generally both the rate and maximum swelling of the woods were increased by removal of extractives and the activation energies were reduced.     

Changes in physical properties of tropical and temperate hardwoods below and above the fiber saturation point

Changes in physical and mechanical properties of wood were analyzed using sorption tests combined with dimensional measurements and perpendicular-to-the-grain tangential compression tests. In order to determine the influence of wood structure on these changes, three hardwood species (Fagus grandifolia, Brosimum alicastrum and Cariniana domestica) presenting different anatomical structures were studied. Two experimental techniques were used to perform moisture sorption tests at 25°C. The first technique used saturated salt solutions (from 33 to 90% relative humidity) and the second used the pressure membrane method (above 96% relative humidity). Special attention was given to the “fiber saturation region”, where changes in wood properties started to take place. Results showed that at equilibrium moisture content (EMC), radial, tangential and volumetric shrinkage, as well as changes in transverse strength occurred above the fiber saturation point (FSP). This behavior can be explained by the effect of hysteresis at saturation on wood properties. This hysteresis indicates that loss of bound water takes place in the presence of liquid or capillary water, which contradicts the concept of FSP. The initial EMC at which bound water starts to be removed varied largely among the wood species.     

Influence of the pore structure of wood on moisture desorption at high relative humidities

Abstract

The influence of the porous structure on moisture desorption of two temperate and five tropical hardwoods was studied. Two experimental techniques were used to perform moisture desorption tests from full saturation at 25°C. The first one was the saturated salt solutions [between 33% and 90% relative humidity (RH)] and the second one was the pressure membrane method (above 96% RH). More emphasis was given to results obtained at high RH, given that sorption in that case is mainly governed by the capillary forces. The porous structure of these hardwoods was characterized by mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and by quantitative anatomical analysis. The results showed that desorption of liquid water was very different among the hardwood species. The MIP technique appeared as an important tool to evaluate the fluid paths within wood, which permitted the prediction of water behavior in wood during drainage from full saturation at high RH. Quantitative anatomical results were very useful for explaining the first steps of drainage and mercury penetration in wood.     

Critical discussion of perpendicular to grain tension testing of structural timber – case study on the European hardwoods ash,beech and maple

ABSTRACT

Knowledge about perpendicular to grain tension behavior of wood is essential, since in construction tension stresses perpendicular to grain cannot be avoided completely. Especially for hardwoods, the data basis is scarce. EN 338 design values are with 0.6 N/mm² characteristic strength set very low. The US-American National Design Specifications even set this value to zero and make local reinforcements mandatory. This paper compares strength and stiffness values attained with newly-designed, little, prismatic specimens and EN 408 structural timber specimens to evaluate the current European design values. Little specimen’s characteristic strength values range from 7.2 to 10.6?N/mm² and are assumed to be real material properties. EN 408 specimen values are with approximately 4.0?N/mm² lower. These lower values are mainly due to stress peaks introduced by the force introduction. Strength values attained for the medium-dense European hardwoods beech, ash and maple exceed EN 338 design values by a factor of six to seven. Adaptation of the EN 338 design value is not recommended, though. The abundance of influencing factors makes clear that the design value and the ensuing design code have to be synchronized carefully by tedious testing in order to make use of the perpendicular to grain tension strength potential of the selected hardwoods.     

Influence of wood planing on the second-order effects of moisture sorption in sugar maple

Summary Two types of machines, a conventional planer, and a fixed-knife pressure-bar planer were used to prepare matched specimens of sugar maple wood. After adsorption and desorption, both experiments at 21 °C, the EMC, swelling in all principal directions as well as compliance coefficient in radial compression were measured. Two specimen sizes were used for these expe‐riments. For a given equilibrium moisture content, tangential and radial dimensions were greater after desorption than after adsorption, as previously described. When equilibrium was reached by gaining moisture, the wood was stiffer in radial compression compared to when the equilibrium was reached after losing moisture. The magnitude of this phenomenon, second-order effects of moisture sorption, was slightly affected by the type of planing. These effects on swelling were greater for large specimens prepared by conventional planing compared to fixed-knife pressure-bar planing. Small specimens showed similar magnitudes of this phenomenon with both planing methods. No differences between planing methods were found for the radial compliance coefficient measured on either specimen size. Therefore, the second-order effects of moisture sorption appeared to be a bulk phenomenon and not restricted to the superficial layers of wood. Received 9 December 1997     

Analysis of the pore-size distribution and fiber saturation point of native and thermally modified wood using differential scanning calorimetry

The aim of this paper was to investigate pore-size distributions in the nano-diameter range of wood and their alteration due to thermal modification of wood using thermoporosimetry, and to find out what consequences can be derived regarding the biological durability. Thermoporosimetry is a technique that is based on the measurement using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The method is based on the fact that frozen water contained within small pores is at elevated pressure and therefore has a depressed melting temperature as a function of the appropriate pore diameter. In addition, the fiber saturation points (FSP) were determined by DSC. The former were performed in an isothermal-step method and the latter using the continuous heating-up method. Native and thermally modified twin samples of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), Sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) and European ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) were analyzed. The results clearly show that the pore shares of wood for the measurable diameter range between 4 and 400 nm decrease considerably in all studied wood species due to thermal modification of the wood. Furthermore, thermal modification of wood leads to a decreased FSP for all studied wood species. For evaluation as well as reproducibility of the results of pore-size distribution and FSP, the consideration of sensible heat and specific heat of fusion plays an important role. If this is not done, it can lead to misinterpretations.     

纤维饱和点概念的演变、测试方法及其应用

纤维饱和点(FSP)是木材科学中早期提出的概念,距今已超过1个世纪,在木材-水分关系、物理力学性能等木材科学研究各领域均发挥了重要作用。相较于FSP概念的最初形式,其无论从定义形式还是从物理含义等方面都有了变化,从最初以木材内水分状态及其存在位置的定性描述朝着水分与木材结合形式差异、木材内水分势能边界方向发展。目前国内关于FSP的研究相对滞后,也未见系统的FSP测试原理和方法介绍。本研究对FSP概念演变与发展、测试方法及其优缺点进行系统分析,并在此基础上总结FSP在木材-水分关系、木材干燥技术、改性效果评价中的应用及其进一步发展方向。根据木材-水分关系研究的不同阶段,FSP概念可归纳为4种类型:第1类概念强调以物理力学性质转折点及水分存在位置定义FSP;第2类概念以木材细胞壁容纳水分极限作为FSP,简化了限制条件;第3类概念强调水分与木材结合形式差异,从吸、放热的热物理角度等进行阐述;第4类概念引入溶液热力学概念,将FSP视为木材内不同状态水分的相态边界,给出了FSP明确的物理含义。FSP测试方法可归纳为7类,包括外推法、溶剂排出法、压力板法、示差量热法、离心脱水法、核磁共振法和溶液热力学计算法,除外推法、溶液热力学计算法获得的FSP为计算值外,其他方法都可获得细胞壁内吸着水真实含量,测定的FSP明显高于传统引用的FSP平均值30%,但具体应用时应根据实际需求而定。FSP可进一步在木材干缩湿胀特性分析、木材干燥基准制定等方面发挥作用,同时在木材改性效果评价及改性处理后微观构造分析等领域均可应用。在FSP热力学概念基础上衍生的全含水率区间木材-水分关系的化学势表达方式,以及在此基础上发展而来的木材-水分相态图,将成为今后建立木材-水分关系的科学评价体系机制,并进一步服务于科研与生产。     

Mechanical properties and their interrelationships for medium-density European hardwoods,focusing on ash and beech

ABSTRACT

The usage of hardwoods for engineered wood products, such as glulam, requires defined mechanical properties reflecting the actual tensile strength of the material. Currently, the European strength class system EN 338 only covers profiles for hardwoods tested in bending. In this study, the material properties of medium-density hardwoods are analysed with the focus on a total of 3663 European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica) specimens tested in different loading modes (tension, compression, bending, and shear). The relationships between the material properties—tensile strength, stiffness, and density—are analysed on grouped data of both graded and ungraded specimens. As a result, a tailored ratio of tensile strength to tensile MOE and density is given, which allows to utilize a higher tensile strength of hardwoods (f_t,0,k over 30?N/mm²) compared to softwoods. Furthermore, the relationship of the test values and the derived values is checked. The equations for deriving the compression and bending strength from tensile strength are verified based on available data. For tensile and compression strength perpendicular to the grain and for shear strength of both beech and ash, higher strength values than the ones listed in EN 338 are possible. The relationship between the mechanical properties are combined to tensile strength profiles for hardwoods.     

A NMR study of water distribution in hardwoods at several equilibrium moisture contents

The water state of one tropical (Robinia coccinea) and two temperate (Acer saccharum and Fagus grandifolia) hardwoods was determined at different equilibrium moisture contents (EMC) during desorption at 25°C. NMR technique was used to separate different components of water in wood. The species studied presented different structures, which were apparent on the spin–spin relaxation T₂ values. Three different water components were separated: slow T₂ (liquid water in vessel elements), medium T₂ (liquid water in fiber and parenchyma elements) and fast T₂ (bound or cell wall water). The NMR results showed that even at equilibrated conditions a region exists where loss of liquid water and bound water takes place simultaneously. This region will vary according to the wood structure. Finally, liquid water was present at EMC lower than the fiber saturation point, which contradicts the concept of this point when considered as a bulk property of wood.     

Oleothermal modification of fir wood with a combination of soybean oil and maleic anhydride and its effects on physico-mechanical properties of treated wood

This research work aimed at studying the effects of oleothermal modification of fir wood by using combined soybean oil with maleic anhydride (OHT–MA) to achieve lower treatment temperatures and enhance physico-mechanical properties. Wood blocks were oleothermally treated with soybean oil and OHT–MA at five different treatment temperatures (100, 120, 140, 160 and 180 °C) for three different holding times (30, 60 and 180 min). Afterward, physical and mechanical properties of the treated samples were determined, i.e., density, water absorption and volumetric swelling as the physical properties and bending strength, compression parallel to grain and impact load resistance as the mechanical properties. Results revealed increases in densities and reduction in water absorption as well as volumetric swelling of all treated samples. The mechanical properties were affected by OHT–MA treatment at different temperatures. Bending modulus of elasticity as well as compression parallel to grain was increased due to OHT–MA treatment. In addition, there was less reduction in impact load resistance of the treated samples. It was revealed that the OHT–MA enhanced wood properties at low treatment temperatures as well as shorter holding times.     

Effects of fire-retardant treatment and wood grain on three-dimensional changes of sandwich panels made from bubinga decorative veneer

ABSTRACT

The effects of a fire-retardant treatment (FRT) and wood grain on three-dimensional changes of aircraft sandwich panels were evaluated. Unvarnished and varnished panels having the outer decorative layer made with bubinga (Guibourtia spp.) were studied. Half of the samples from each type of panel received an FRT (phosphate-based) on all three layers of the decorative plywood. The other half had the two inner layers treated and the outer layer untreated. Three different figures formed by the rotary cutting and grain orientation were identified and separately studied on veneer surfaces. Samples pre-conditioned to 20°C and 40% relative humidity (RH) underwent an adsorption (25°C, 90% RH) and then a desorption (25°C, 40% RH) treatments. Changes in moisture content (MC), swelling, shrinkage, roughness, and waviness were measured after each moisture exposure condition. The results showed that the FRT increased significantly MC, swelling, and shrinkage of unvarnished and varnished panels. This treatment as well as the type of wood figure affected roughness and waviness variations of unvarnished panels. However, the effects of these two factors were not noticeable once panels were varnished.     

Influence of the pore structure of wood on moisture desorption at high relative humidities

The influence of the porous structure on moisture desorption of two temperate and five tropical hardwoods was studied. Two experimental techniques were used to perform moisture desorption tests from full saturation at 25°C. The first one was the saturated salt solutions [between 33% and 90% relative humidity (RH)] and the second one was the pressure membrane method (above 96% RH). More emphasis was given to results obtained at high RH, given that sorption in that case is mainly governed by the capillary forces. The porous structure of these hardwoods was characterized by mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and by quantitative anatomical analysis. The results showed that desorption of liquid water was very different among the hardwood species. The MIP technique appeared as an important tool to evaluate the fluid paths within wood, which permitted the prediction of water behavior in wood during drainage from full saturation at high RH. Quantitative anatomical results were very useful for explaining the first steps of drainage and mercury penetration in wood.     

Determination of the fibre saturation point in whole wood using differential scanning calorimetry

Summary A new method for determining the fibre saturation point (FSP) of whole never-dried wood is described. Enthalpy of melting values from differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) experiments are used to calculate the proportion of non-freezing water. Two methods for calculating the FSP from the enthalpy data are described. FSP determinations were carried out on the commercially important West Australian eucalypt species, Eucalyptus marginata and Eucalyptus diversicolor and a plantation softwood, Pinus radiata. Results are reproducible and are corroborated by the traditional volumetric shrinkage method for determining the FSP. On all samples below 10 mg a low temperature endothermic peak is observed as a shoulder on the main peak. It is postulated that this is due to an intermediate layer of water between the freezing and non-freezing water.Use of the DSC at Curtin University of Technology, and the help of Mr. I. Sills is greatly appreciated. This and related work is supported by the Australian Govt. Department of Primary Industry and Energy (Forestry)     

Comparison analysis of nonlinear segmentation methods for selected wood features in sugar maple

Two classification methods, a feed-forward neural network and a fuzzy logic algorithm, were used for the automatic identification of CT images for selected wood features in sugar maple, one of the most important hardwoods in eastern Canada. Three wood characteristics were selected for automatic identification together with the background as a default. Local features, such as position and local pixel values were used as the neural networks inputs. The fuzzy sets consisted of four different possible pixel values and four possible distances from the center of the log. The fuzzy method used in this study was of the Mamdani type. Five sugar maple logs were randomly selected for this study. One of the logs is used for the training of the neural network and the others for validation and comparison. The structure of the neural network was optimized and was used for the segmentation of the other logs. An efficiency function, consisting of the number of pixels correctly labeled, was defined for the evaluation of the segmentation process. This study shows that a segmentation based on a fuzzy method has better capabilities for generalization than one based on a feed-forward method.     

Effects of moisture content and temperature on acoustic velocity and dynamic MOE of radiata pine sapwood boards

The effects of moisture content from 17 to 159% MC and temperatures from −71°C to +58°C on resonance-based acoustic velocity and dynamic modulus of elasticity (DMOE) were investigated using 36 boards of radiata pine sapwood. Acoustic velocity decreased with increasing moisture content and temperature, although effects differed noticeably below and above fibre saturation point (FSP). Below FSP, acoustic velocity decreased rapidly and linearly with increasing moisture; whereas above FSP changes in velocity were rather gradual and curvilinear with marked differences in velocity patterns between temperatures below and above freezing. Acoustic velocity decreased linearly with increasing temperature but there was an abrupt discontinuity at the freezing point for wood above FSP. Changes in moisture content and temperature affecting wood density and acoustic velocity led to changes in DMOE, although this relationship was not straightforward because changes of velocity with moisture were linear or curvilinear and depended on whether wood was frozen or unfrozen, whereas changes of density with moisture content were invariably linear. For practical work, it is important to estimate the relative effect of changing moisture content or temperature with respect to standard conditions on DMOE, thus general guidelines were devised to account for significant changes.     

Laboratory test for grouping tropical species for kiln drying

Summary A system was developed for grouping tropical wood species for kiln drying based on similar estimated drying times. Six tropical species were subjected to drying and water soaking tests; variables were test temperature and specimen thickness. Soaking time, specimen thickness, and test temperature were used in an empirical model to predict drying times. The capability of the model to predict drying times was considered acceptable based on an adjusted coefficient of determination equal to 0.929 and an average error of 14 percent. The overall capability of the method proposed for grouping tropical hardwoods for drying is considered promising and worthy of further investigation.     

Analysis of the water vapour sorption isotherms of thermally modified acacia and sesendok

Abstract

Two Malaysian hardwoods, acacia (Acacia mangium) and sesendok (Endospermum malaccense), that had been subjected to oleo-thermal modification were studied to determine their sorption isotherm behaviour using a dynamic vapour sorption apparatus. All the specimens were thermally modified using palm oil at three different temperatures (180, 200 and 220°C) and three different times (1, 2 and 3 h). The results showed that there was a reduction in equilibrium moisture content at each target relative humidity due to the heat treatment, but that the two wood species showed different behaviour in this respect. The adsorption isotherms were analysed using the Hailwood and Horrobin model, with excellent fits to the experimental data. The monolayer water and polylayer water were both reduced at a range of relative humidity values of the treated samples, although behaviour between the two wood species differed. Heat treatment resulted in an increase in hysteresis ratio, which was probably due to the increase in matrix stiffness of the cell walls.