Tensile strength of softwood butt end joints. Part 1: Effect of grain angle on adhesive bond strength

To study the effect of grain angle on the adhesive bond strength in wood, three-part Norway spruce wood specimens were bonded and tested in tension. The two axially orientated outer parts of the specimens were joined with the middle part by means of three adhesives typically used for load-bearing constructions, i.e. one-component polyurethane (PUR), melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF) and phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde (PRF). The grain angle of the middle part was varied from 0° (end grain to end grain) to 90° (flat grain to end grain) in incremental steps of 10°. In general, PRF- and MUF-bonded samples exhibited highest tensile strength at end grain to end grain orientation of the three parts, while specimens bonded with PUR showed only 25% of the strength measured for PRF and MUF, respectively. At high grain angles (90°) all specimens showed similar strength values in the range of 30% of maximum strength of MUF- and PRF-bonded specimens. To explain the changing strength levels at different grain angle a composite failure criterion was applied.     

Tensile strength of softwood butt end joints. Part 1: Effect of grain angle on adhesive bond strength

Abstract

To study the effect of grain angle on the adhesive bond strength in wood, three-part Norway spruce wood specimens were bonded and tested in tension. The two axially orientated outer parts of the specimens were joined with the middle part by means of three adhesives typically used for load-bearing constructions, i.e. one-component polyurethane (PUR), melamine–urea–formaldehyde (MUF) and phenol–resorcinol–formaldehyde (PRF). The grain angle of the middle part was varied from 0° (end grain to end grain) to 90° (flat grain to end grain) in incremental steps of 10°. In general, PRF- and MUF-bonded samples exhibited highest tensile strength at end grain to end grain orientation of the three parts, while specimens bonded with PUR showed only 25% of the strength measured for PRF and MUF, respectively. At high grain angles (90°) all specimens showed similar strength values in the range of 30% of maximum strength of MUF- and PRF-bonded specimens. To explain the changing strength levels at different grain angle a composite failure criterion was applied.     

Tensile strength of softwood butt end joints. Part 2: Improvement of bond strength by a hydroxymethylated resorcinol primer

Abstract

In a previous study it was shown that the mechanical stability of an end-grain joint bonded with a one-component polyurethane adhesive (PUR) was insufficient compared with melamine–urea–formaldehyde and phenol–resorcinol–formaldehyde bonding. Based on this, the aim of this study was to improve the mechanical stability of the end-grain joint by means of a hydroxymethylated resorcinol (HMR) primer and by increasing the spreading quantity. To study the effect of HMR and the increased spreading quantity on the adhesive bond strength of end-grain to end-grain-bonded wood samples, three-part Norway spruce wood specimens were tested in tension. Before bonding, each end-grain surface was treated with an aqueous solution of HMR. The two axially orientated outer parts of the specimens were jointed with the middle part using a PUR adhesive. Compared with untreated, i.e. non-primed samples, the tensile strength of HMR-treated specimens was more than doubled. Furthermore, a positive effect of increased adhesive spread was shown for untreated PUR-bonded samples. An increase in adhesive spread by a factor of 1.6 led to an improvement in tensile strength by a factor of about 2.6.     

Comparison of internal bond strength and compression shear strength of wood-based materials

The purpose of this study was to design a compression shear device for easy and fast measurement of the bonded shear strength of wood-based materials to replace the conventional method used to evaluate internal bond strength (IB). To assess the performance of this device, five differently sized specimens, included group I (dimension 5 × 1 cm), group II (5 × 2 cm), group III (5 × 3 cm), group IV (5 × 4 cm), and group V (5 × 5 cm) cut from commercial particleboard and medium-density fiberboard (MDF) (1.8 cm thick) were tested in compression shear. Only group V (5 × 5 cm) was prepared for the IB test. Results indicated that the compression shear strengths (CS) of particleboard and MDF, loaded in the horizontal or the diagonal direction, were greater than the IB, although a significant correlation existed between the two. This finding suggests that the IB of particleboard and MDF could be accurately estimated from the data collected by the CS test.Part of this report was presented at the Third Pacific Rim Bio-based Composites Symposium, Kyoto, December 2–5, 1996     

Bond strength of end-grain joints and its dependence on surface roughness and adhesive spread

The effect of different machining processes on surface roughness and on adhesive tensile strength of end-grain-bonded spruce wood specimens was studied. Surfaces that had been cut with two different circular saws containing 48 and 96 teeth were compared with those that had been further processed by smoothing with a microtome, machine planing, or sanding. Two different adhesives and two different spreading quantities were used to join the test specimens by their end-grain surfaces. Increasing tensile strength of the bonded specimens was observed with increased surface roughness, which was ascribed to an enlarged bonding area in the case of circular-sawn samples with a rough surface. On the other hand, more pronounced starving of the bond line and thus decreased bond strength was observed in the more open cells of the smoothed end-grain surfaces. A positive effect regarding tensile strength was further observed with increased spreading quantity of the adhesives. Machining was found to particularly affect earlywood tracheids, whereas surface roughness of latewood tracheids was comparable for the differently treated end-grain surfaces     

测试胶合板胶合强度的研究

通过对有关胶合强度测试的几个试验结果的分析,表明我国胶合板国家标准对胶合强度试验方法的规定具有先进性、合理性和可行性。     

冷等离子体处理对实木复合地板基材胶合性能的影响

采用常压介质阻挡放电产生的冷等离子体对杨木、桉木和马尾松单板进行改性处理,随后将它们分别压制成多层实木复合地板用基材,研究处理功率、处理速率对不同原料基材胶合特性的影响。同时对不同基材单板分别采用对应的较优处理条件进行冷等离子体处理,研究单板表面润湿性和表面形貌变化。结果表明:常压冷等离子体处理有助于提高地板基材胶合强度,降低浸渍剥离率。其中,桉木经等离子体处理后性能提高最为明显,杨木次之,马尾松较不明显。考虑实际生产中需提高生产效率,降低能耗,对杨木可选用4.5 k W,14 m/min的处理条件;对桉木和马尾松均可选用4.5 k W,2 m/min的处理条件。     

Influence of growth ring angle,adhesive system and viscosity on the shear strength of adhesive bonds

Abstract

To investigate the influence of growth ring angle, adhesive system and viscosity on the bonding properties of adhesive bonds, shear tension tests according to DIN EN 302-1 (2004) were conducted using one-component moisture-curing polyurethane, polyvinylacetate and urea-formaldehyde. Significant differences between the systems could be detected, which were reflected in the predominant failure behaviour for each system. Specimens showing wood failure were influenced mainly by the wood factors, whereas samples which had failed in the adhesive part of the bond differed only in the adhesive properties. The growth ring angle showed the same tendencies as it does in plain wood. Therefore, to gain more information on the adhesive performance in the bond, a loading along the LT plane seems more appropriate for beech wood used in DIN EN 302-1 (2004).     

Effect of size and geometry on strength values and MOE of selected hardwood species

The total hardwood timber stock of German forests is fast growing. The lack of knowledge concerning test standards, product standards and sorting criteria makes it difficult to expand the processing and marketing of hardwoods into the field of construction usage. Strength and stiffness data derived from small, defect-free specimens do mostly exist, but in order to be able to insert hardwoods into building applications, data derived from real size specimens is needed. Subsequently, the results of these two different specimen categories need to be correlated and the so-called size effect needs to be quantified and qualified. This paper aims to analyze the size effect of defect-free compression, bending and tensile specimens for the six European hardwood species maple (Acer spp.), birch (Betula pendula), beech (Fagus sylvatica), ash (Fraxinus excelsior), oak (Quercus spp.) and lime (Tilia spp.). They are tested exclusively parallel to grain. Regarding the compression strength for maple, birch and ash, the specimen dimensions did not influence the compression strength value. For beech, oak and lime, it was observed that compression strength increased as the specimen volume was increased. The bending strength of all species decreased as the specimen dimensions increased. Concerning the tensile strength, a clear statement on whether dimensions influence the tensile strength value is not possible. Further research with adjusted specimen sizes, specimen shapes and machine set-ups is needed. Regarding the compression and bending MOE, in most cases, the dimensions did not influence the MOE values. In tensile testing, MOE values differed significantly for the different specimen sizes. Whether these differences were due to slightly different test set-ups in the different sizes or a true size effect could not be answered conclusively.     

不同阻燃剂对胶合板胶合强度和燃烧性能影响

选用3种自制阻燃剂浸渍思茅松单板,通过测试胶合板的胶合强度、氧指数和烟密度,分析阻燃剂对胶合板的胶合强度和燃烧性能的影响.研究结果表明:工业制备阻燃胶合板的胶合强度、氧指数、烟密度等级满足国家标准GB/T 17657和GB 8624-2006的要求,说明工业生产阻燃胶合板是可行的.与对照试件相比较,阻燃胶合板的氧指数提高了75.8％～149.8％、烟密度等级降低了15.4％～60.5％、胶合强度降低了43.9％ ～ 56.1％;其中阻燃剂FR-B对胶合板氧指数影响最大,阻燃剂FR-A对胶合板的烟密度影响最大,阻燃剂FR-C对胶合板的胶合强度影响最小.     

浸渍纸层压木地板内结合强度不确定度评定

依照JJF 1059.1-2012《测量不确定度评价与表示》的方法,对浸渍纸层压木地板内结合强度测量试验中影响其测量结果不确定度进行了分析和评定。结果表明：浸渍纸层压木地板内结合强度为：σ=（1.04±0.01）MPa,其中扩展不确定度的包含因子k=2,置信概率p=95%。     

Development of room-temperature curing aqueous emulsion-type acrylic adhesive I: effect of monomer composition on the initial adhesive strength

For the purpose of developing a new aqueous emulsion-type adhesive for wood or paper use that does not release formaldehyde or volatile organic solvents, a honeymoon-type acrylic adhesive was examined. An adhesive system consisting of acrylic monomers copolymerized with functional monomers and a cross-linking agent was selected for the purposes of increasing initial adhesive strength and ensuring room-temperature curing. The initial adhesive strength increased by the use of cross-linkers such as dihydrazides and also polymeric methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (pMDI). Thus an adhesive with reasonable to good initial adhesive strength and room-temperature curing was obtained. The effect of pMDI on the initial adhesive strength was not significant and decreased when the amount of acrylamide in a copolymer was high.     

人工林落羽杉力学性能研究

对江汉平原人工林落羽杉物理力学性能进行了研究,结果表明:落羽杉的气干密度为0.413 g/cm3,气干密度等级为轻;综合强度为74 MPa,强度等级为Ⅰ级;径向横纹抗压强度略大于弦向横纹抗压强度;端面硬度最高,弦面硬度与径面硬度差别不大。落羽杉南北面近树皮处木材的密度、抗弯强度、弹性模量、顺纹抗压强度均大于近髓心处,南北方向对落羽杉的密度、顺纹抗压强度在5%水平上差异均不显著,而对其抗弯强度、弹性模量在1%水平上差异显著。     

Development of room-temperature curing aqueous emulsion-type acrylic adhesive II: effect of monomer composition on the final adhesive strength

In a series of studies, development of a new aqueous emulsion-type adhesive for use with wood or paper, which does not release formaldehyde or volatile organic solvents, was attempted. For the purpose of increasing both initial and final adhesive strengths, we selected a system consisting of acrylic monomers copolymerized with functional monomers such as diacetone acrylamide and some cross-linking agents such as dihydrazide or polymeric methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (pMDI). It was found that dihydrazide cross-linker was effective for both the initial and final adhesive strengths, suggesting contribution of hydrazone bonds to the bonding strengths. Cross-linking with pMDI might be slow and was not important in the initial bonding. However, its cross-linking effect might develop gradually, because the adhesive showed good final strengths using pMDI as a cross-linker.     

工艺参数对稻壳-木刨花复合板内结合强度的影响

采用均匀实验设计方法,通过单因素及两因素间交互作用情况,探讨工艺参数对稻壳-木刨花复合板内结合强度(IB)的影响。在试验研究范围内,密度、芯层比例、芯层施胶量、热压温度、热压时间对复合板IB影响显著,表现为IB随密度的增大先增大后减小,随芯层比例和芯层施胶量的增加而增加,随热压温度和热压时间的增加而减小。当密度为0.77 g/cm3、芯层比例为60%~65%、芯层施胶量为4.5%、热压温度为170℃、热压压力为2.5 MPa、热压时间为20 s/mm时,在兼顾生产效率与生产成本的同时,能够获得IB良好的稻壳-木刨花复合板。     

Determining the effect of tree size,bark-wood bond strength and tree form on the productivity of an excavator-based harvester in Acacia mearnsii in the KwaZulu-Natal forestry region of South Africa

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of tree size, bark-wood bond strength and tree form on the productivity of cut-to-length harvesting of Acacia mearnsii, using an excavator-based harvester with a SP Maskiner harvester head in the KwaZulu-Natal forestry region of South Africa. Tree diameter and height measurements were used to determine individual tree volumes, after which the trees were classified into different bark-wood bond strength and tree-form classes. Time studies were carried out to determine harvester productivity. The results showed that tree size plays a crucial role in the productivity of the harvester, but bark-wood bond strength and tree form also influence productivity. The harvester productivity varied from 5.5 m³ per productive machine hour (PMH) in 0.05 m³ trees to 16.9 m³ PMH^?1 in 0.25 m³ trees The bark-wood bond strength did not influence harvester productivity when handling small trees of less than 0.1 m³. In small trees, the productivity of the harvester was also not affected by different form classes, but as tree size increased, there was greater productivity variation between the different form classes.     

Improving strength grading of timber by grain angle measurement and mechanical modeling

Abstract

Timber strength grading has become a major issue in the European Union during the last years, due to the introduction of the Eurocode 5 and all its related standards. Currently, the most performing strength grading machines are able to locally detect the boards’ knots sizes and positions and interpret this information through adapted grading models. The best lead to improve their accuracy seems to be the introduction of new information about the boards and adapt the mechanical model to take them in account. Small grain angle causes high reduction of clear wood's mechanical properties; local value of slope of grain appears to be of high interest. The aim of this study is to quantify the additional accuracy that grain angle information can bring to an optical scanner used as a strength grading machine. A specific grading model has been developed accordingly, and the results obtained for different machine/model/loading combinations are presented. These results show that slope of grain measurement can significantly improve the accuracy of the optical scanner, for both modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture estimations.     

Structural mechanism and effect of hole compressibility on mechanical strength of MFLB

We have studied the structural mechanism of micron flaky wood fiber light density board (MFLB), of which voids are an important structural characteristic. A new parameter called hole compressibility (η) was added to study the characteristics of MFLB further, in order to produce various levels of hole compressibility. A set of hot pressures was applied, and uniform parts at cross-sections of MFLB were selected to study the effects of hole compressibility on the modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) of MFLB by microscopic analyses. The results showed that MFLB (0.3 g/cm³ in density) processed at various hot pressures (from 1.6 to 2.2 MPa) all meet the norms of the Japan Light Particleboard Industrial Standard JISA 5908, where η ⩽ 0 ranging from −0.0487 to −0.068. The critical value of hole compressibility at which the strength began to decrease was also obtained. We compared the void distribution, size and shape at different void contents and hole compressibility and discussed the effects of hole compressibility on MOE and MOR of MFLB as well. To a certain density of raw material and micro-fiber of a certain thickness, the strength of MFLB can be decreased with an increase in hole compressibility. When the hole compressibility of MLFB exceeds a certain critical value, loading at a lower level will decrease MOR and MOE of MFLB considerably. __________ Translated from Scientia Silvae Sinicae, 2007, 43(6): 123–127 [译自: 林业科学]     

Differences of tensile strength distributions between mechanically high-grade and low-grade Japanese larch lumber III: effect of knot restriction on the strength of lumber

It is well known that the presence of knots in structural lumber is one of the most important strengthreducing factors. For practical purposes, visual grading including knot restriction is an effective method for nondestructive evaluation of strength. Edge knot restriction for not only visually graded lumbers but also mechanically graded lumbers is specified in the Japanese agricultural standards for glued laminated lumber. We conducted experimental studies on differences of tensile strength distributions between mechanically high-grade and low-grade Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi, carriere) lumbers daily used for manufacturing glued laminated timbers in Nagano, Japan. We then examined the additional visual grading of mechanically graded lumbers for nondestructive evaluation. We visually graded the prepared mechanically graded lumber by focusing on the knots' area ratio of grouped knots. We confirmed that the higher visual grade related to the stronger tensile strength, similar to our present knowledge; but the effects of knot restriction were reduced when the length of the lumber increased in view of nonparametric 5th percentiles of tensile strength. The differences in the strength/elasticity ratio between mechanically high-grade and low-grade lumber were negligible. It was clear that the length effect on the ratio in visually graded high-grade lumber was smaller than that of visually graded low-grade lumber. It was thus concluded that knot restriction should have little effect on the tensile strength of mechanically graded lumber.     

Yield and mechanical properties of veneer from Brachystegia nigerica

In an effort to find suitable wood from natural forest to meet the demand for veneer products, the yield and tensile strength of veneers produced from Brachystegia nigerica were investigated. Two trees of B. nigerica were separately selected from 10 different natural forest zones while two logs were obtained from each tree. The logs were debarked and steamed in a vat prior to rotary peeling and slicing for veneer production. The optimum steam temperature was determined by considering different temperatures: 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, 80°C and 90°C for 24 h. Thereafter, optimum steam time was determined at the optimum temperature by considering durations of 24, 48, 72 and 96 h. The average taper of 0.75 mm per 1.0 m length was recorded for B. nigerica, indicating that the logs were reasonably cylindrical; thereby its logs are good for the production of veneer. The yield ranged from 44% to 61% with an average of 52% of the log input. The tensile strength of the veneer was tested perpendicular to grain and both peeled and sliced veneers had the highest tensile strength between 70°C and 90°C, suggesting that softening of wood polymers, especially lignin, is between 70°C and 90°C. The optimum temperature and time for veneer production are 70°C and 48 h, respectively. Commercial production of veneer from B. nigerica is feasible based on the yield and mechanical properties of the obtained veneer, thereby encouraging the expansion of the scope ofits utilization.