Disease patterns in the Detroit Zoo: a study of reptilian and amphibian populations from 1973 through 1983

A retrospective study was conducted to determine disease patterns in reptilian and amphibian populations at the Detroit Zoo from 1973 through 1983. In the reptilian population (mean +/- SD = 285.2 +/- 28), overall annual mortality rates were 1% to 40%. Mortality rates were highest in the fall months (20%) and lowest in the winter months (6%). The most frequently affected reptiles were iguana (Iguana iguana), reticulated python (Python reticulatus), rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp), common boa (Constrictor constrictor), and lizards (various genera of suborder Lacertilia). Of the 1,300 reptilian deaths from 1973 through 1983, 36.6% were caused by microbial agents, 12% by parasites, 11.6% by trauma, and 9.3% by nutritional deficiencies. The main microbial organisms that caused death were Aeromonas spp, Salmonella spp, Pseudomonas spp, Proteus spp, and Edwardsiella spp. The main parasites that caused death were Entamoeba spp and lungworms. Among amphibians, frogs and toads were the most frequently affected, and starvation and trauma were the most frequent causes of death.     

Disease patterns in the Detroit Zoo: a study of the mammalian population from 1973 through 1983

A retrospective study was conducted to evaluate disease patterns in the mammals at the Detroit Zoo from 1973 through 1983. The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), common eland (Taurotragus oryx), rednecked Wallaby (Protemnodon rufogrisea), sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii), and kangaroo (Macropus spp)- were the most frequently affected mammalian species. Parasitic agents (80% of which were internal parasites) caused morbidity in 60.2% of the mammals evaluated (n = 2,475) and microbial agents caused morbidity in 20.8% of the animals. Strongyloides spp, Trichostrongylus spp, coccidian species, Diphyllobothrium spp, and Trichuris spp were the internal parasites most frequently found. Overall annual mortality rate was 14% to 34%, with microbiological agents causing the highest mortality (26.5%). Pasteurella spp, beta-hemolytic Streptococcus spp, pathogenic Escherichia coli, Corynebacterium spp, and Klebsiella pneumoniae were the most frequent microbial causes of death. Cause of mortality could not be determined in 21.5% of the animals evaluated. The percentage of animals successfully treated increased from 1973 through 1983. Generally, however, the percentage of successfully treated animals was low (21% to 39%).     

A retrospective study of presentation, treatment, and outcome of free-ranging raptors in Greece (1997-2000).

A retrospective study was conducted on free-ranging raptors (n = 402) presented to the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, School of Veterinary Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece, during a 3-yr period (1997-2000). Representatives of 19 species were admitted from taxonomic orders Accipitriformes (n = 295), Falconiformes (n = 35), and Strigiformes (n = 72). Traumatic injuries (n = 305, 75.8%) were the most common cause of presentation in all raptors. Starvation (n = 38 birds, 9.4%) was the second most common reason, whereas toxicoses (n = 28, 6.9%) were suspected in a limited number of birds. Orphans (n = 31, 7.7%) were presented during breeding season primarily because of inappropriate human intervention. Surgical and medical treatment was given to all birds when necessary. In total, 229 (56.9%) of the presented raptors were successfully rehabilitated and released, 121 (30%) were rehabilitated but nonreleasable, whereas 52 (12.9%) of them died despite treatment. Human intervention (79.2%) plays the most important role in birds of prey morbidity and mortality.     

Reovirus infection in psittacine birds (Psittacus erithacus): morphologic and immunohistochemical study

In this paper we report on an outbreak of reovirus, herpesvirus (Pacheco disease), and/or mycosis infection (Aspergillus spp. and Zygomyces spp.) affecting a batch of young African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus), with 80% morbidity and 30% mortality. Study material was taken from five birds (four dead and one euthanatized) with a range of clinical symptoms (depression, diarrhea, respiratory symptoms). Diagnosis was confirmed by immunohistochemical detection of avian reovirus, electron microscopy, and virus isolation. Viral antigen of reovirus was detected mainly in large mononuclear cells in the bursa of Fabricius and the spleen, pancreas epithelial cells, and circulating cells; lymphoid organs displayed the largest number of immunopositive cells and severe lymphocyte depletion. Bacteriologic study was negative. Reovirus infection was common in all birds studied, whereas Pacheco disease and mycosis were found in only some, suggesting that reovirus could be the initial cause triggering the outbreak and facilitating infection by other agents and their swift spread through the batch.     

A survey of ixodid ticks feeding on cattle and prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in the Black Sea region of Turkey

The study reports the frequency of infestation and the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in feeding adult ticks detached from cattle in two climatic zones of the Black Sea region of Turkey. A total of 2160 adult ticks were collected during 2007-2008. Of these, 1062 were randomly selected, divided into 224 pools, and tested for the presence of bovine Theileria, Babesia, and Anaplasma species. Eleven tick species were recognized on cattle in the study. Hyalomma marginatum was widely disrubuted in the semi-arid bioclimatic zone, but few specimens were collected in the humid bioclimatic zone. The most prevalent tick species in the humid climatic zone was Ixodes ricinus. Infection rates were calculated as the maximum likelihood estimation with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Overall, 4% (CI 2.87-5.44) of 224 tick pools were found to be positive for the pathoges by Reverse line blot. Maximum likelihood estimation of the infection rate varied among tick species, ranging from 2.68% (CI 0.16-12.68) in Haemaphysalis sulcata to 10.49% (CI 4.07-23.66) in Rhipicephalus bursa. The most prevalent tick-borne pathogen was Anaplasma phagocytophilum at 6.78% (CI 3.41-12.18) followed by A. centrale (6.56%, CI 0.42-31.47), Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp. (3.61%, CI 1.99-6.06), Babesia spp. (3.33%, CI 1.65-6.03), and T. buffeli/orientalis (2.71%, CI 0.73-7.18). Sequencing results indicated that Babesia spp. shared 99% to 100% similarity with the unnamed Babesia sp. Kashi 1 and 2, Babesia sp. Kayseri 1 and Babesia sp.CS58. Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp. were 98% and 100% identical to Ehrlichia canis and Ehrlichia sp. Omatjenne strain, respectively.     

Descriptive epidemiology of morbidity and mortality in Minnesota dairy heifer calves

A prospective study was carried out on 845 heifer calves born during 1991 on 30 Holstein dairy farms in southeast Minnesota. The objectives of the study were to describe the epidemiology of morbidity and mortality in dairy calves from birth to 16 weeks of age (with an emphasis on respiratory disease), to examine individual calf and herd management practices as risk factors for calf morbidity and mortality, and to validate producer diagnosis of mortality. Incidence rates for all morbidity, enteritis, and pneumonia were 0.20, 0.15, and 0.10 cases per 100 calf-days at risk for the period of the study. Risk of enteritis was highest in the first 3 weeks of life, with pneumonia risk highest at 10 weeks of age. Case fatality rates averaged 11.8%, 17.9%, and 9.4% for all diagnoses, enteritis, and pneumonia, respectively. Average daily rates of gain from birth to 16 weeks of age differed between farms that had inadequate calf housing (0.8 kg day⁻¹) versus those with adequate calf housing (1.0 kg day⁻¹). Approximately half of the calves in the cohort (418) had blood samples taken monthly from birth until 16 weeks of age. Of the calves sampled, only 19 calves showed a four-fold rise in serum titers to respiratory viruses. Sixteen calves seroconverted to BVDV, two calves to IBRV, and one calf to PI3 virus. Of 98 calves less than 10 days of age tested for adequacy of passive transfer, 35 (35.7%) had serum immunoglobulin levels of less than 800 mg dl⁻¹. There were no significant differences in mortality or morbidity between calves that had adequate passive transfer and those that did not. The incidence of mortality was 0.08 deaths per 100 calf-days at risk; 64 calves died during the 16 months of the study. The risk of death was highest at 2 weeks of age. Enteritis was the most common cause of death (28 deaths, 44% of all deaths) followed by pneumonia (19 deaths, 30% of all deaths). Comparing producer diagnosis of mortality with necropsy results yielded sensitivities of 58.3% and 56% and specificities of 93% and 100% for producer diagnoses of enteritis and pneumonia, respectively. The kappa statistic comparing producer diagnosis with necropsy result was 0.47. The most common pathogens isolated from calves that died of enteritis were rotavirus (five calves), and Escherichia coli (four calves). Pathogens isolated from pneumonic lungs included Pasteurella multocida (three calves), Haemophilus somnus (three calves), and Pasteurella haemolytica (one calf).     

Acuaroid nematodes in the common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) in the south of Spain

The prevalence, intensity and abundance of acuaroid nematodes were determined in the common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) in Andalusia, Spain. Acuaroid nematodes were present in 26/41 (63.4%) of birds examined. The most common species belonged to the genus Synhimantus subgenus Synhimantus (56%): S. (S.) laticeps (36.5%), S. (S.) robertdollfusi (24.3%) and a single specimen of a third, unknown, Synhimantus (S.) spp., unlike any other described previously (2.4%). Other species identified were Synhimantus (Dispharynx) spp. (2.4%), S. (D.) nasuta (4.8%), Desportesius spinulatus (9.7%) and Skrjabinoclava spp. (2.4%). This is the first record of these three species in F. tinnunculus, but the latter two are considered to be accidental parasites in birds of prey.     

A survey of the aerobic bacteria in the feces of captive raptors

Feces of 47 captive raptors belonging to the order Falconiformes or Strigiformes were cultured for bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria, which were cultured from the feces of 45 of the 47 raptors, were the most common isolates. A wide variety of species were identified, including a newly described genus (Moellerella wisconsensis), two newly described species (Escherichia fergusonii and Proteus penneri), and a member of a newly described enteric group (CDC Enteric group 41). Additional organisms identified that have not been reported in previous bacteriological surveys of raptors were Salmonella heidelberg, Salmonella braenderup, Morganella morganii, Yersinia ruckeri, Serratia spp., and Kluyvera sp. Escherichia coli, isolated from the feces of 42 of the 47 raptors, was the most frequently recovered. Streptococcus faecalis, the second most common isolate, was cultured from 30 birds. Several differences were observed between fecal bacteria isolated from raptors fed commercially prepared chicken and those isolated from raptors not fed chicken. The most obvious difference was that birds fed chicken had more varied gram-negative bacterial species and in greater numbers per fecal sample. The potential for the isolated bacteria from raptors as pathogens in humans and avian species is discussed.     

A survey of aerobic bacteria and fungi in the feces of healthy psittacine birds

Fecal samples from 61 clinically healthy psittacine birds of a wide variety of species were cultured for bacteria and fungi. The most common bacterial isolates were gram-positive bacilli, which were recovered from 60 of the 61 birds. These organisms included Lactobacillus, Bacillus, Corynebacterium, and Streptomyces. Gram-positive cocci, cultured from the feces of 21 of the birds, included Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus spp., Aerococcus spp., and Micrococcus spp. Only 6 of the 61 psittaciformes yielded gram-negative bacteria, with Escherichia coli being the most frequent isolate. Gram-negative bacilli were recovered from 4 of the 31 privately owned birds and 2 of the 30 petshop birds sampled. In addition to the bacteria, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus laurentii, and Aspergillus sp. were isolated from 13 fecal cultures. Candida albicans was isolated exclusively from 5 petshop birds. The number of birds yielding Corynebacterium and gram-negative bacteria increased with age, whereas the number of birds yielding lactobacilli and yeasts decreased with age. The organisms isolated and their significance as potential pathogens in psittacine birds are discussed.     

Urban birds: An important source of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella strains in Central Spain

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the most important threats of the 21 st century. Wild birds have been described as reservoirs of AMR in different bacterial species, such as Salmonella spp. Privation of food, climate change and overpopulation have forced many wild species to modify their feeding habits, attending urban areas. In this context, the aim of this study was to study Salmonella presence, as well as related AMR in urban birds that inhabit the city and its surroundings. A total of 300 urban birds were sampled for Salmonella detection according to the ISO 6579-1:2017 (Annex D) recommendations, and serotyping was carried out according to the White-Kauffman-Le Minor scheme. Antimicrobial susceptibility was tested following 2013/652/EU Decision guides. Wild birds analysed were positive for Salmonella in 12.3 % of cases, with white storks fed in landfills as the most Salmonella prevalent species (p < 0.05). The most common serovars isolated were zoonotic (S. Enteritidis, S. Typhimurium and S. Typhimurium monophasic variant). From Salmonella isolated strains, 40.5 % were resistant to the most prevalent AMRs found in urban birds were ciprofloxacin (36.4 %), nalidixic acid (36.4 %) and colistin (27.3 %). The scientific community, public administration and population in general should work together to control antimicrobial administration and drug waste management in order to decrease the development and spread of AMR.     

Health evaluation of free-ranging and captive blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva) in the Gran chaco, Bolivia.

Bolivia has a total of 47 species of Psittacidae, seven of which have been identified in our study site, the semiarid Gran Chaco of the Isoso. One species, the blue-fronted parrot (Amazona aestiva), is frequently captured by local Isose?o Guaraní Indians for exploitation on the national and international market. These birds are often temporarily housed in small villages under unhygienic conditions with poultry and other domestic species. On occasion, these parrots escape back to the wild. Additionally, many of these birds are kept as pets or are used to lure wild. parrots within slingshot range for subsequent capture. In this study, we evaluated the health status, including the level of exposure to selected infectious agents, in the wild-caught captive birds and free-ranging birds. Physical examinations were performed, and blood was collected, from 54 live birds (20 captive and 34 free-ranging). Feces were collected from 15 birds (seven captive and eight free-ranging). Necropsies were also performed on four recently dead wild-caught birds. On serologic testing, no birds were found to have antibodies to avian influenza virus, Chlamydophila psittaci, infectious bronchitis virus, infectious bursal disease virus, infectious laryngotracheitis virus, Marek's disease virus, paramyxovirus-1, paramyxovirus-2, paramyxovirus-3, polyomavirus, eastern equine encephalitis virus, western equine encephalitis virus, or Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Positive antibody titers were found for psittacine herpesvirus (8/44, 18.2%), Aspergillus spp. (3/51, 5.9%), and Salmonella pullorum (33/49, 67.3%). All three of the birds that tested antibody positive for Aspergillus spp. were captive, whereas six of the eight and 15 of the 33 birds that tested positive for psittacine herpesvirus and S. pullorum, respectively, were wild.     

Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter from wild birds of prey in Spain

Wild birds have been identified as a relevant reservoir of Campylobacter spp., therefore, a potential source of infection in humans and domestic animals. The objective of this study was to determine the occurrence of Campylobacter spp. on birds of prey in Spain. In addition, antibiotic resistance profiles of the isolates were evaluated. A total of 689 specimens of 28 raptor species were analyzed, with a resulting individual prevalence of 7.5%. C. jejuni was the most frequently isolated species (88.5%), followed by C. coli and C. lari (3.8% each). The occurrence of Campylobacter was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in nocturnal birds of prey (15.3%), in spring season (12.2%) and in carnivorous species (9.4%). Isolates displayed a remarkable resistance to nalidixic acid (69.9%), ciprofloxacin (69.9%), and tetracycline (55.6%), and a low resistance to streptomycin (6.7%).Our findings highlight the importance of birds of prey as reservoirs of Campylobacter strains and their significant role as carriers of antimicrobial resistance.     

The isolation of salmonellae, Newcastle disease virus and other infectious agents from quarantined imported birds in Canada.

Necropsy and culture results are presented for 269 consignments of imported birds (mainly psittacine and passerine species) examined between January 1977 and August 1980. Consignments were submitted for diagnosis of clinical illness or deaths occurring among these birds while they were in quarantine before entry into Canada. Enteritis and injury were the most frequent diagnoses. Pathogens or potential pathogens were isolated from 77% of consignments. Newcastle disease virus was isolated nine times, and Chlamydia psittaci was isolated once. Escherichia coli (from 113 consignments) and salmonellae (from 49) were the most common bacteria isolated, and reoviruses (from 22) and paramyxoviruses other than Newcastle disease virus (from 22) were the most common viruses. Salmonella typhimurium was the most common Salmonella serovar. Salmonella hadar was isolated from turkey poults imported from Great Britain. The possible public health significance of the role of imported birds in the introduction of exotic Salmonella serovars, or of serovars resistant to several antimicrobials is discussed.     

Parasitic helminths in the digestive tract of six species of owls (Strigiformes) in Spain

A survey was carried out in Catalonia, Spain to determine the prevalence of parasitic helminths infesting the digestive tract of nocturnal raptors (Strigiformes). One hundred birds belonging to six owl species were examined. The number of birds examined ranged between three and 30. The overall level of infestation was 65% and the most frequent helminths present were nematodes, followed by trematodes, cestodes and acanthocephalans. Strigiformes showing the highest levels of infestation were little owls (Athene noctua), 86.7% of which were infested. Helminths with the highest prevalence were Synhimantus spp., intestinal capillarids, Brachylaima spp., cestodes and Centrorhynchus aluconis.     

Isolation of Campylobacter species from zoo animals and polymerase chain reaction-based random amplified polymorphism DNA analysis

A total of 104 fecal specimens from 30 mammals, 12 birds, and 3 reptiles at the Phoenix Zoological Gardens, Miyazaki City, Japan, were examined for the presence of Campylobacter species. All the animals examined were healthy with no fecal abnormality. Twenty-three (22.1%) thermophilic campylobacters, (9 C. jejuni, 11 C. hyointestinalis, 2 C. coli, and 1 C. lari), were isolated from 11 animals (7 mammals and 4 birds). C. jejuni and C. hyointestinalis were the predominant species isolated from these zoo animals and C. hyointestinalis was isolated frequently from simians. As selective media influence the numbers and species of campylobacters isolated, the agar medium was not supplemented with cephalothin. Campylobacters were isolated most frequently when a combination of enrichment culture and selective agar plating was performed at 42 degrees C. For the epidemiological study, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method was used as a tool to detect the heterogeneity of amplified DNAs of Campylobacter spp. isolated from zoo animals. The two arbitrary primers used in this study enabled even closely related strains of the same Campylobacter spp. to be differentiated. RAPD analysis revealed considerable diversity among the strains, suggesting that the transmission of Campylobacter spp. among animals in a defined area occurred through different mechanisms.Examination of the genotypic diversity among the multiple clones from the same host also revealed differences between clones. These results demonstrate that campylobacter populations in zoo animals are highly divergent.     

Ectoparasites on birds (Passeriformes, Charadriiformes) migrating through the Moravian gateway

The birds migrating through the entrance to the Moravian Gate were subjected to a three-year ectoparasitological study. The studied 24 bird species had three species of louse flies (Diptera, Hippoboscidae ), 31 species of biting lice (Mallophaga), two species of fleas ( Aphaniptera ) and one species of ticks (Acarina, Ixodidae). In Czechoslovakia the biting lice Quadraceps connexus were detected for the first time to be present on phalarope ( Phalaropus lobatus ) and Menacanthus sp. were found for the first time as parasites of reed warbler ( Acrocephalus arundinaceus ). The study also included the determination of the population density of parasites in the attacked birds and the frequency of the occurrence of ectoparasites in 150 specimens of the five most widespread species of reed birds. Louse flies occurring almost in a third of the birds (32% frequency) can be considered as the most important group of summer ectoparasites of the birds living at localities overgrown with reeds . Biting lice occurred at a 6% frequency, and fleas and ticks were even less abundant.     

Prevalence of Salmonella spp in selected birds captured on California dairies

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of Salmonella spp in wild birds commonly found on California dairies. DESIGN: Prospective study. ANIMALS: 7 selected species of birds were captured on 9 dairies in Kings and Tulare counties, California. PROCEDURE: Birds were captured (using traps and nets) and euthanatized, and the entire gastrointestinal tract was removed. Contents of the gastrointestinal tract were subjected to culture for Salmonella spp. RESULTS: 892 birds were captured, and Salmonella spp were isolated from 22 birds. The prevalence by dairy ranged from 0.7 to 16.7%, whereas the prevalence by bird species ranged from 1.2 to 3.2%. Cowbirds and English sparrows had the highest prevalence of Salmonella organisms. Five serotypes of Salmonella organisms were isolated, including Meleagridis, Montevideo, Muenster, Typhimurium, and an untyped serotype. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: On the basis of our findings, birds that commonly inhabit California dairies harbor Salmonella organisms. However, because of the low prevalence of Salmonella organisms in birds and the Salmonella serotypes isolated, birds are not important reservoirs of Salmonella organisms on California dairies.     

Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella spp. in pet mammals, reptiles, fish aquarium water, and birds in Trinidad

The prevalence of Salmonella spp. was determined in 970 animals comprising 423 pet birds, 485 fish aquaria water and 62 other pets (40 pet mammals, 14 reptiles, eight others - crustaceans, snail, stingray) from both pet shops and households throughout Trinidad. The serotypes of Salmonella spp. isolated were identified and the resistance to various antimicrobial agents was determined. Overall nine (0.9%) of 970 pet animals were positive for Salmonella spp. Six isolates of Salmonella spp. were recovered from all pet birds with two isolates of serotype Aberdeen and one isolate each of Thompson, Rubislaw, Panama and Newport. The prevalence of Salmonella spp. in birds was 0.9%. Four isolates of Salmonella spp. were recovered from fish aquaria water, serotypes included Panama (two isolates), Newport (one isolate) and Virchow (one isolate). Prevalence of Salmonella spp. from fish aquaria was 0.4%. No isolate of Salmonella spp. was detected in pet mammals sampled while two isolates were recovered from reptiles, S. Enteritidis and S. Montevideo. One isolate of Salmonella spp. was recovered from a stingray, serotype unknown. Antimicrobial resistance was present is all animal types. The highest prevalence of resistance was to streptomycin among isolates from birds (83.3%) and other pets (100.0%) while isolates from fish aquarium water exhibited comparatively high resistance to cephalothin (50.0%). It was concluded that the isolation of Salmonella spp. from apparently healthy birds, fish aquarium water and other pet animals may pose a health risk to their owners and contacts as all serotypes are known to be potentially pathogenic depending on the oral dosage of the organism and the immune status of those in contact. The high prevalence of resistance to antimicrobial agents among Salmonella isolates across pet species may pose chemotherapeutic consequences to their owners and contacts.     

五种牧草及三种草坪草种子寄藏真菌检测初探

采用PDA平皿法和滤纸法检测了市售5个牧草品种和3个草坪草品种种子样品寄藏真菌的情况,并就分离获得的真菌对种子出苗及幼苗生长的影响进行了初步研究.结果表明,供试种子样品带菌率为0～70.5%,分离获得的35个真菌分离物大多属于镰刀菌(Fusarium spp.)、链格孢菌(Alternaria spp.)、蠕孢菌(Helminthosporium spp.)、小核菌(Sclerotium sp.)、匍柄霉菌(Stemphylium spp.)和曲霉菌(Aspergillus spp.).供试样品中假俭草和波多马各(鸭茅)种子带菌率较高,在PDA平皿检测中其未经表面消毒处理的种子带菌率分别为48.4%和70.5%,表面消毒处理种子带菌率分别为40.8%和28.8%,分离获得的种子寄藏真菌对假俭草和波多马各种子出苗及幼苗生长的影响较小.圣地亚哥(南苜蓿)和菊苣种子带菌率较低,但分离获得的真菌对其种子出苗和幼苗生长的影响较大.以镰刀菌与匍柄霉菌接种过的南苜蓿种子出苗率分别比未经表面消毒且未接种真菌的对照低44.0%和21.7%,出苗后的病苗率分别为22.7%和29.7%;以链格孢菌与曲霉菌接种过的菊苣种子的出苗率分别比未经表面消毒且未接种真菌的对照低22.0%和27.5%,出苗后的病苗率分别为2.3%和29.3%.     

Serotypes of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae in Australian pigs, small ruminants, poultry, and captive wild birds and animals

Serotypes of 93 Australian isolates of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae from diseased domestic animals and poultry and a variety of captive wild birds and animals were determined by double diffusion gel precipitation. Two isolates, from the faeces of a swallow were also examined. Serotypes 1a, 1b and 2 were isolated from pigs and serotypes 1a, 1b, 2, 5, 15 and 21 from sheep or goats. Erysipelas in poultry was attributed to serotypes 1b, 5, 15 and 16. In captive wild birds serotypes 1b, 5, 6, 8, 14, 21 and an isolate reactive with antiserum to strain Seehecht were associated with septicaemic deaths. Single isolates from tissues of a bilby (Macrotis lagotis), black rat (Rattus rattus), brown snake (Pseudechis australis) and a bandicoot (Isoodon macrouris) were classified as serotypes 4, 4, 7, and 10 respectively. Six isolates were not able to be typed. Serotype 1b was the most widely distributed and most common (28%), being associated with disease in pigs, sheep, poultry and wild birds. Serotypes 1a or 2 were found in a more restricted range of animals, being commonly associated with erysipelas in pigs, less commonly in sheep and infrequently in other species. From diseased pigs, 26 of 33 isolates (79%) were serotypes 1a and 1b.