Contribution to our knowledge of the physiology and metabolism of endurance horses

The functional and metabolic processes of the endurance horse are discussed, based on personal experience and the scientific literature. Research on the energetic and physiological aspects of prolonged effort is reviewed, as regards the performance structure, described by Neumann, for human physiology.Experimental data from our previous surveys on endurance horses, competing at different levels, are also presented and discussed.The results on amino acid levels in blood, and related metabolic pathways, during endurance events, lead to speculation on the effects of the race distance on metabolic processes during long-lasting low-intensity exercise. In fact, the event distance has a significant influence on amino acid mobilization and their use as energy sources. In human athletes, the disappearance of some amino acids from blood circulation is linked to the onset of central fatigue. The effect could be similar in endurance horses; therefore, the correct intake of amino acids, and a proper feeding strategy, could improve performance.Data are also provided on dehydration and oxidative stress associated with endurance work.     

Heart Rate,Net Cost of Transport,and Metabolic Power in Horse Subjected to Different Physical Exercises

Considering that workload can also be expressed in terms of estimated net transport cost (COT), the metabolic energy needed to transport unit mass of animal unit distance, the aim of our study was to describe the heart rate (HR), COT, and the total metabolic power requirement per kilogram (P) during different exercises (aerobic, anaerobic, and aerobic–anaerobic exercises). On the basis of their attitude, 25 horses, divided into five equal groups, traveled a distance of 6,000 m, walking at 100 m/min in a horse walker (group A); performed 20-minute treadmill walk at 130 m/min, average speed up gradient of 5% (group B); performed a 700-m-long show jumping course with 13 fences (group C); traveled a distance of 2,100 m galloping at a speed of 700 m/min (group D); and traveled a distance of 2,000 m trotting at a speed of 660 m/min (group E). On each horse, HR was continuously recorded by means of an equine HR monitor. COT was calculated with the following formula: (HR − 35) kg⁻¹ m⁻¹ 10³; P was calculated applying the formula: (HR − 35) min⁻¹ kg⁻¹. COT and P values, estimated from the mean HR, measured continuously during each experimental condition showed no linear relationship with HR and speed. The use of combined weight of horse and tack (group C and D) and horse, tack, and sulky (group E) statistically changed the results of formula application. COT and P change in different exercises and provide additional information about performance in athletic horses.     

Application of a Dual Force Sensor System to Characterize the Intrinsic Operation of Horse Bridles and Bits

An equine bridle tension system, with electronic force gauges in both the line of the reins and that of the cheekpiece (CP) on one side of the horse, is used to study the dynamic response of the CP tension to rein tension in the ridden horse. The objective is to quantify so-called “poll pressure.” Bits designed to give strong poll pressure using simple pulley or lever principles show a much attenuated transfer of the rein tension through the bit to the poll. The attenuation is readily understood when the equine mouth is recognized as a “floating” fulcrum degrading the otherwise required fixed pivot point of an ideal lever. Furthermore, any use of a curb chain diverts higher rein-induced CP tension to the chin rather than to the poll. Unexpectedly, however, a simple loose ring bit is found to give modest poll pressure, transferring rein tension through a pulley-like action. Finally, the curb bit of a double bridle is examined, and physical interference between the curb and bridoon mouthpieces is found. Standard, yet powerful computational signal processing of the dynamic time series tension data reveals that the poll pressure produced by the curb bit is predominantly due to tension in the bridoon reins and not the curb reins. Physical overlaying of the bridoon on the curb mouthpiece is implicated.     

Application of Platelet-Rich Gel to Enhance Wound Healing in the Horse: A Case Report

A large torn wound of the dorsal elbow region was observed in a 17-year-old Arabian mare. Surgical reconstruction was performed with the horse in standing sedation, but suture dehiscence occurred 2 days later. Autologous platelet-rich gel (PRG) was then applied to the wound every 3 weeks for a total of 3 administrations to accelerate good-quality healing. The wound had healed rapidly and completely within 5 months of the first PRG treatment, without chronic effects or formation of exuberant tissue granulation and with minimum scarring. This case report suggests that topical treatment with autologous PRG, as additional therapy, might be considered beneficial in the management of large-wound healing in horses, and it can be regarded as safe and inexpensive treatment that can be used in field.     

Comparison of the Sedative and Hemodynamic Effects of Acepromazine and Promethazine in the Standing Horse

The objective of this study was to compare the sedative and peripheral hemodynamic effects of acepromazine (ACP) and promethazine (PTZ) in the standing healthy horse. Nine healthy Warmblood horses randomly received either intravenous ACP at 0.1 mg/kg or PTZ at 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 mg/kg. A sedation score based on clinical examination was recorded, and systolic arterial blood pressure was noninvasively evaluated using a Doppler flow detector at the tail, just before and every 15 minutes until 60 minutes after drug injection. Hemodynamics of the median artery of the left forelimb was studied using Doppler ultrasonography just before and 45 minutes after injection of the drug, which allowed calculation of surface (SURF), diameter (DIAM), and circumference (CIRC) of the vessel and peak systolic velocity (PSV), end diastolic velocity (EDV), mean velocity (MV), volumetric flow (VF), and resistivity index (RI) of the blood flow. Regardless of the dose used, PTZ had lesser sedative and hypotensive effects than ACP at 0.1 mg/kg and did not induce significant variations in SURF, DIAM, CIRC, PSV, EDV, MV, VF, and RI of the studied standing horses. Conversely, the vasodilatory properties of ACP were illustrated by a significant increase in SURF, DIAM, CIRC, PSV, EDV, MV, and VF and a significant reduction of the RI. Unlike ACP, PTZ did not induce alterations on the morphology of the Doppler waveform. PTZ appears to have less sedative and peripheral vasodilator effects than ACP, thus it could be safer than ACP in patients suffering from hypotension.     

The Effect of Cimetidine and Aminoguanidine on Pro-inflammatory Cytokines in the Horse

In this study, six horses each had three subcutaneous tissue chambers. Each horse was pretreated with intravenous saline (control), cimetidine, or aminoguanidine with a 4-week washout period. On day 0, a carrageenan (NaCl inflamed) was instilled in 1 tissue chamber. Blood and all tissue chamber fluids were sampled on days -1 to 3 and measured for activity levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1, and IL-6. The T_max for all cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6) was 0.5 and 1 day post-inflammation in tissue chamber fluid. In the tissue chamber fluid, NaCl inflamed (NaCl-I), cimetidine, and aminoguanidine groups showed significant increases in IL-1 production. In the NaCl-I and cimetidine, tissue chamber fluid IL-6 was significantly increased when compared with NaCl noninflamed (NaCl-N) for the periods of study -1 to 1, -1 to 2, and -1 to 3. The cimetidine tissue chamber fluid [TCF] appeared to have a delayed, but greater, IL-6 response than the NaCl-I treatment. Even with cimetidine and aminoguanidine pretreatment, the resulting decrease in NO production demonstrated in our previously reported results in these same animals appeared to be too late to decrease the early cytokine response. However, it may assist in preventing the subsequent NO-induced upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine production.     

Nutrition and Exercise in the Management of Horses and Ponies at High Risk for Laminitis

Obesity, insulin resistance (IR) and hyperinsulinemia are risk factors for laminitis in horses and ponies. Alterations in management, especially diet and physical activity, can be helpful in the management of these risk factors. Caloric restriction, ideally combined with increased physical activity, to promote weight loss and improve insulin sensitivity is indicated for the management of obese animals. Strict control of dietary NSC through the elimination of grains and sweet feeds and by restricted access to NSC-rich pastures is recommended for insulin-resistant animals, regardless of whether they are obese or not. Medical treatment with levothyroxine or metformin may be indicated in obese or insulin-resistant animals that do not respond to conservative management.     

A Comparison of Daily Rhythm of Creatinine and Creatine Kinase in the Sedentary and Athlete Horse

The goal of this study was to investigate the existence of a daily rhythm of creatinine or creatine kinase (CK) and the influence of physical exercise on these rhythms. Blood samples from 20 Sella Italiana horses were collected every 4 hours for 48 consecutive hours via an intravenous cannula inserted into the jugular vein. The horses were divided into two equal groups (Sedentary [S] and Athlete [A]). After 2 weeks of rest, athletes (AR) were subjected again to sample collection every 4 hours for 48 consecutive hours, and sera creatinine and CK were assessed. Statistical analysis of the data was performed by one-way repeated analysis of variance (ANOVA), paired Student's t-test, unpaired Student's t-test, and analysis of single cosinor method. Cosinor analysis identified the periodic parameters and their acrophases (expressed in hours) during the 2 days of monitoring. In all horses, we found a highly significant effect of time of the day on the studied parameters (P < .01). Statistically significant differences were observed for mean serum CK values between sedentary and athlete horses. The application of the periodic model showed a daily rhythm of the parameters studied in all experimental conditions. The results obtained during the experimental period indicated a daily rhythm of creatinine and CK in sedentary and athlete horses and also indicated that physical exercise was able to influence amplitude, acrophase, and robustness of the creatinine and CK circadian rhythm.     

Bone mineral content of the third metacarpal bone in Quarter Horse foals from birth to one year of age

Dual photon absorptiometry (DPA) is a valid method for bone mineral content (BMC) evaluation, but there are no reports on the use of this technology in in vivo studies in the horse. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the changes of BMC of the third metacarpal bone (MC3) in vivo in foals during their first year of life using DPA. The BMC of the MC3 of 41 Quarter Horse foals was evaluated every 4 weeks during their first year of life by DPA using a bienergetic Gadolinium-153 (¹⁵³Gd) source. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of an in vivo study of BMC in foals using DPA by means of a bienergetic ¹⁵³Gd source. The results demonstrated a positive correlation of age, heart girth, and withers height with BMC of the MC3 independent of gender and an exponential behavior of the BMC increment along the first year of life. There was an effect of weaning associated with change in diet and stall confinement on BMC in foals weaned at age 17 weeks, but not in foals weaned at age between 19 and 24 weeks.     

Occlusion of the External Carotid and Maxillary Arteries in the Horse to Prevent Hemorrhage from Guttural Pouch Mycosis

Balloon-tipped catheters were used to occlude the external carotid artery and its branches in nine horses with hemorrhage caused by guttural pouch mycosis. The internal carotid artery on the affected side was occluded simultaneously in four horses and had been occluded previously in two others. In three horses, a single balloon-tipped catheter was inserted in the external carotid artery beneath the floor of the guttural pouch and its tip was advanced blindly into distal branches. In one horse, the superficial temporal artery was occluded briefly during surgery by a balloon-tipped catheter so a catheter inserted into the external carotid artery could be diverted into the maxillary artery. In the other five horses, the external carotid artery was occluded proximally and the maxillary artery was occluded immediately caudal to the alar canal by a balloon-tipped catheter inserted into the major palatine artery. Serious postoperative hemorrhage did not occur in eight horses, but one horse that had a single balloon-tipped catheter inserted into the external carotid artery had profuse hemorrhage 11 days after surgery and was euthanatized. One horse was euthanatized because of persistent dysphagia. The only complication related to use of balloon catheters was a mild incisional infection in one horse. It was concluded that the external carotid and maxillary arteries must be occluded on both sides of the eroded segment to prevent hemorrhage from normograde and retrograde flow.     

Overview of the Current Situation in a Sample of Headshakers and Owner Assessment of Effective Therapeutic Measures Used in Germany

Equine headshaking syndrome is a problematic behavior that has been described in literature for more than 100 years. The signs of headshaking syndrome appear frequently and violently so that riding the horse can be dangerous. The aim of this research was to gain an overview of the underlying causes of equine headshaking syndrome to identify effective treatment options, reduce the distress of horses and, in a second step, potentially improve therapeutic possibilities for horse owners and veterinarians. Most studies on prevalence originate from Anglo-American countries, so this research was to provide an overview of German horses; therefore, an online survey was designed by experts in the field (researchers and veterinarians) and answered by German horse owners. Questionnaires were pretested by a small group of horse owners (n = 5) and redesigned accordingly. The final questionnaire consisted of 27 questions, which were divided into seven open questions with an associated text field and 20 multiple-choice questions (Supplementary Material 1). For some of the multiple-choice questions, multiple answers were permitted. In total, 163 completed questionnaires were obtained from owners of headshaking horses (n_total = 163). Gender distribution of the horses resulted in 64.4% geldings, 33.7% mares, and 1.8% stallions. Most horses were German warmbloods (55.4%). The average age was 12.7 years (with a wide range of 5 to 34 years). The vertical movement of the head was the most frequently mentioned symptom in 75.5% of the evaluated horses. In 18.4% of the cases, the horse owners identified stress as the main trigger for headshaking. Furthermore, 18.4% claimed that their horses suffered from additional stereotypical behavior. The percentages do not refer to the same horses here. 11.0% of the participants in this study tried scientifically evaluated therapies such as surgical therapy (1.2%) or medical treatment (9.8%). In addition, 54.0% of the owners utilized a nose cover to reduce the symptoms of the headshaking syndrome. A high percentage of 84.0% used alternative therapies such as physiotherapy (31.9%), change of equipment (22.7%), or change of riding style (29.4%). Overall, this study provides a useful overview of causes and effective therapies.     

Validation of the Lactate Plus Lactate Meter in the Horse and Its Use in a Conditioning Program

The equine industry has a need for a convenient, rapid, and reliable method of measuring blood lactate concentrations ([LA]). We hypothesized that the handheld Lactate Plus lactate meter (LPlus), developed and tested for use in humans, would provide dependable results when used in horses undergoing an exercise conditioning program and that horse's fitness would improve following individualized conditioning based on each horse's velocity at which [LA] = 4 mmol/L (V_LA4) was reached. Five adult horses underwent a 4-week training program that consisted of 3 exercise bouts/wk. Horses were subjected to an incremental step standardized exercise test (SET) before starting (SET-1) and after the completion of the program (SET-2). Blood samples were collected before each increase in speed until [LA] reached ≥4 mmol/L, and then the SET was terminated. The [LA] sample range in our study was 0–8 mmol/L. Blood was analyzed at the time of collection using a calibrated LPlus, and plasma was collected for [LA] determination using the lactate dehydrogenase–based enzymatic colorimetric method. Although the LPlus tended to significantly underestimate [LA] by 0.39 mmol/L (P < .001), the LPlus proved to be a dependable device for use in horses based on good correlation with the biochemical analysis (r = 0.978) and Bland–Altman limits of agreement and 95% confidence intervals. All horses showed an increase in V_LA4 from SET-1 to SET-2, consistent with improved fitness following our 3 exercise bout/wk training protocol. The LPlus can reliably be used in horses to determine [LA] ranging from 0–8 mmol/L. When determining serial [LA], analytical techniques should not be used interchangeably.     

Long-Term and Immediate Effects of Whole Body Vibration on Chronic Lameness in the Horse: A Pilot Study

The effects of whole body vibration (WBV) in horses with chronic lameness were evaluated in an experimental, single subject, repeated measure design. To assess the long-term effect of WBV, eight horses not previously exposed to WBV were subject to WBV, 30 minutes twice daily, five days a week, for 60 days in addition to their regular exercise routine. Lameness was assessed subjectively and objectively 30 days before the start, at the start and 30 and 60 days after the start of the treatment (WBV). The immediate effect of WBV was assessed in four horses accustomed to WBV, by comparing lameness before and within 30 minutes of a single 30-minute WBV session at four different time intervals. Change in lameness was sought using paired t tests on the kinematic data. A P-value of <.05 was considered statistically significant. Intraindividual change was sought using a subjective and objective scoring system. No statistically significant change in lameness was seen after 30 or 60 days of WBV, respectively, in the chronically lame horses not previously exposed to WBV. However, a trend toward improvement was observed after the first 30 days of WBV, but this improvement appeared to be lost during the second 30 days of WBV. Although a statistically significant worsening of front limb lameness was seen immediately after a single 30-minute WBV session in the chronically lame horses accustomed to WBV, this result was largely attributed to a very significant worsening of the front limb lameness in one horse within that group.     

Association of growth, feeding practices and exercise conditions with the prevalence of Developmental Orthopaedic Disease in limbs of French foals at weaning

Developmental Orthopaedic Disease (DOD) in limb joints of horses is frequent and is a common cause of pain and lameness. DOD is a multifactorial disease involving genetics, growth, feeding practices and exercise conditions leading to joint injuries. However, there is no clear understanding of the contribution of each factor. The aim of this cohort study was to assess the adjusted effects of breed and gender, growth, feeding practices and exercise conditions on the prevalence of DOD in the limbs of foals at weaning and on the prevalence restricted to osteochondrosis (OC).Twenty-one farms in Normandy, France, were convenience sampled and enrolled in a cohort study. The study sample consisted of 401 foals from 3 breeds, followed from the 8th month of pregnancy of the mares until weaning period at approximately 6 months of age of the foals. Stud farms were regularly visited to collect growth, feeding practices and exercise conditions data. The carpus, the front and hind digits, the hock and the stifle of the foals were X-rayed at the end of follow-up. Foals were categorised as affected or unaffected by DOD or by OC. Two mixed-effects logistic regression models were used to determine risk factors for DOD or OC, adjusting for clustering by farm.Of the 378 foals with complete data, 47% (95% CI: 42–52) were affected by DOD and 36% (95% CI: 31–41) by OC. Risk was significantly increased for DOD and for OC in Warmblood foals compared to Thoroughbreds (OR 2.8; 95% CI: 1.2–6.5 for DOD, OR 2.9; 95% CI: 1.1–7.5 for OC), in foals with a high wither height at 30 days of age, and in foals with a rapid increase of wither height (for DOD only). Exercise conditions such as large area of pasture, some irregular exercise, or some batch changes were also significant risk factors for DOD or OC. No association was found with quantitative feeding practices; it was likely due to the limited variability of horse regimens and to the partial inclusion of nutritional effects in other factors such as breed and growth. In order to reduce the prevalence of DOD or OC in foals, following the growth and reducing nutritional supply in subjects growing fast, limiting the pasture areas offered and providing a regular exercise to foals seems appropriate. To our knowledge, to date the assessment of adjusted effects of potential risk factors for DOD has never been proposed.     

Comparison of the Head and Neck Positions in Ridden Horses Advertised in an Australian Horse Sales Magazine: 2005 Versus 2018

The impact of head and neck position (HNP) on horse welfare has received much attention in the scientific literature within the last two decades. Studies have identified physiological and behavioral signs of distress in horses ridden for prolonged time in an HNP with their noseline behind the vertical (BTV), which may compromise their welfare. The objective of this study was to compare potential differences of HNPs shown in horse sales photographs advertised in an Australian horse sales magazine (Horse Deals) from the years 2005 and 2018. In addition, factors potentially impacting HNPs, such as type of tack presented in (e.g., noseband type), riding discipline, and competition experience of the horse, were investigated. The sample population (n = 570) comprised horses ridden with headgear and bit in walk, trot, or canter/gallop, advertised in an Australian horse sales magazine. Issues from April 2005 and October/November 2018 were selected. Head and neck position was categorized as BTV, on the vertical (OV), slightly in front of the vertical (IFV), or extremely in front of the vertical (EIFV; any HNP >30° IFV). Data were analyzed using the chi-squared test and post hoc testing via a multiple regression approach through SPSS and test of proportions via the Z-score calculator for two independent population proportions. Analysis of combined data from years 2005 and 2018 showed 47.0% (n = 570) of the horse sample population were advertised with HNPs BTV. Behind-the-vertical HNP was observed as the predominant HNP (57.8%; n = 268) in the warmblood/eventers/show/performance (WESP) category (P < .0005). In 2005, 53.4% (n = 303) of the sample population were ridden BTV compared with 39.7% (n = 267) in 2018 (P < .001), 12.9% (n = 303) were OV in 2005 compared with 15.0% (n = 267) in 2018 (P > .05), and 10.9% (n = 303) were IFV in 2005 compared with 27.3% (n = 267) in 2018 (P < .0004). These results suggest a positive development with fewer vendors/riders selecting images where the horse’s nose was BTV. However, this may be explained by the larger proportion of horses advertised in the WESP category in 2005 (63.0%; n = 303) versus 2018 (28.5%; n = 267), and the WESP category predominantly comprised of dressage, jumper, and eventing horses. In addition, the reduction of HNPs BTV from 53.4% (n = 303) in 2005 to 39.7% (n = 267) in 2018 could be attributed to the observation that in 2018, a larger proportion of horses were listed in categories that do not require the horses to be worked with a flexed HNP referred to as “on-the-bit” (e.g., western, endurance, Australian sStock horses). The HNP BTV remains preferential by a substantial proportion of the horse-owning public when advertising horses for sale, particularly in disciplines where the horse is worked in a flexed HNP or “on-the-bit.”     

Clinical Applications of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone-Vasopressin Axis in the Horse and Future Directions for Research

The renin–angiotensin–aldosterone–vasopressin axis (RAAV) is known to play significant roles in preserving hemodynamic stability in response to changes in blood volume, blood pressure, electrolytes, and water. In the previous years, some studies focused on RAAV in the horse, showing substantial future clinical and research applications. Early studies assessed the response of this axis to different types of exercise (increasing intensity exercise vs. endurance). Aldosterone and vasopressin concentrations were measured in horses with mild dehydration induced by endurance exercise in comparison with horses suffering from exhaustion and metabolic problems after prolonged exercise. More recently, the neurohumoral response to heart failure, mainly in congestive states, has received special attention. The activation of the RAAV in congestive heart failure has important prognosis applications and inhibitors of this axis have been clinically studied, as the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. However, inhibitors of renin, aldosterone, and vasopressin have not been studied in horses. Additionally, the investigation of the changes in blood pressure during dehydration, sepsis, and endotoxemia in foals and adult horses might show important applications in the treatment of states that induce modifications in blood pressure. Inappropriately low RAAV activity has been detected in human patients with prolonged vasodilatory shock, and exogenously administered vasopressin could be used as a potent vasopressor agent to stabilize cardio-circulatory function. Similarly, it might be administered to septic foals for similar purposes. Finally, the RAAV axis also has important implications in the development as well as in the treatment of the chronic renal failure, although it has not been investigated in horses.     

Blood Levels of Selected Metabolic Factors,Cytokines, and Lymphocyte Subpopulations in Arabian and Thoroughbred Horses During the Longest and Shortest Days of the Year

Day length-related alterations of several metabolic factors (glucose, leptin, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor-1 [IGF-1]), cytokines (interleukin-2 [IL-2], IL-4, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α], interferon-gamma [IFN-γ], and lymphocyte subpopulations [CD2, CD3, CD4, CD8, CD19, natural killer (NK) cells) were evaluated in Arabian and Thoroughbred horses. Plasma glucose, leptin, IGF-1, insulin, and cytokines levels were measured on the longest day of the breeding season and on the shortest day of the nonbreeding season. Determination of lymphocyte subpopulations was performed by flow cytometry. Glucose and IL-2 levels, CD4:CD8 ratio, and NK cells showed variations that depended on the day length. Mean concentrations of plasma leptin were higher in Arabian horses than in Thoroughbred horses, whereas mean concentrations of IGF-1 and IL-2 were lower in Arabian horses. Day length-by-breed-by-gender interaction was found for insulin, IFN-γ, and IL-4 levels. An interaction was also found between day length and gender for the expressions of CD2, CD3, CD8, and CD19. Correlations were detected between expression of CD8⁺ cells and levels of TNF-α and IFN-γ and between percentages of NK cells and levels of IGF-1, insulin, and glucose. Results suggested that day length and, therefore, season are important determinants or factors in modulating the immune system and could affect lymphocyte subpopulations depending on the sex of the horse. Additionally, it seems that a complex relationship in horses, as in humans and mice, exists between the immune and metabolic system, which changes according to day length, breed, and gender.     

Clinical Application of Current Research Findings Toward the Prevention and Treatment of Acute Laminitis in Horses With Systemic Inflammatory Diseases: An Internist’s Perspective

Laminitis is most commonly caused by metabolic disorders or systemic inflammatory diseases. There are numerous recent publications that have reported on pathophysiology of laminitis associated with systemic inflammation. These studies include both in-vitro and in-vivo models investigating inflammatory profiles, vascular reactivity or oxidative stress at different stages of development or clinical laminitis and some studies have proposed therapeutic interventions. Although the amount of information in these studies is great and quality of the research is often outstanding, it has not always been clear how these findings might be applied to clinical practice. This article is intended to report one internist's perspective on recent research findings on the pathophysiology and prevention of laminitis in horses with systemic inflammatory diseases and how these findings might be applied to clinical practice.     

Aspects of the owning/keeping and disposal of horses, and how these relate to equine health/welfare in Ireland

Background

Ireland has long been renowned as a major centre for the breeding, rearing and keeping of horses. Since 2007, however, there has been increasing concern for horse health and welfare standards, and links between these concerns and the structures, governance and funding of the Irish equine industries have been reported. This paper addresses two central issues: firstly the local governance of, trade in and disposal of unwanted horses; and secondly mechanisms employed to improve standards of care given to horses owned by certain communities.

Method

Primary information was gathered through visits to horse pounds run by and on behalf of Local Authorities, to social horse projects, to horse dealer yards, ferry ports, horse slaughter plants and knackeries.

Results

The approach adopted by members of a given group, e.g. ferry ports, is described and differences are highlighted, for example in how different Local Authorities implement the Control of Horses Act of 1986, and how the choice, for example, of disposal route affects the standard of animal welfare.

Conclusions

There is a pressing need for a more centrally mandated and uniformly applied system of governance to safeguard the health and promote the keeping of horses to a higher welfare standard in Ireland. Fundamental to an understanding of why there is insufficient oversight of the keeping and proper disposal of horses is the lack of a comprehensive, integrated system for the registration, identification and tracing of equidae in Ireland.     

Kinematic Analysis of the Rider According to Different Skill Levels in Sitting Trot and Canter

The purpose of this study was to analyze and compare the kinematics of a group of 10 professional riders (PROs) and a group of 10 beginners (BEGs) in sitting trot and canter. Therefore, the relative joint angles of the knee and elbow as well as the absolute segment angles of the riders' pelvis, trunk, and head were measured using a full-body inertial measurement system under field conditions. Two further sensors were attached to the horse and collected the motions and steps of the horses. The waveform parameters of each rider–horse combination were statistically and qualitatively analyzed over 30 gait cycles. At sitting trot, the ranges of motion of the left elbow and left knee were significantly higher in the BEG group. Furthermore, the BEGs' heads tilted notably more anterior than PROs' heads in sitting trot. In canter, BEGs moved their trunks significantly more over the mediolateral axis than PROs. Statistical differences in the ranges of motion of the riders' elbows and knees could be found in canter. Considering this, it can be presumed that a smaller range of motion in the elbows and knees and a more upright head are indicators for a more skilled rider in sitting trot. Furthermore, the results of canter pointed out that a more stable and calmer trunk could be important for a good riding performance. Based on these quantitative findings, the performance of inexperienced riders could be improved in the future.