Modification of protein structure and dough rheological properties of wheat flour through superheated steam treatment

Native (NF, 13.5% w.b) and moistened (MF, 27% w.b) wheat flours were treated with superheated steam (SS) at 170 °C for 1, 2 and 4 min, and their protein structure as well as dough rheological properties were analyzed. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and SDS-PAGE patterns indicated the formation of protein aggregates with reduced SDS extractability after treatment. Farinograph and dynamic rheometry measurements showed that the strength as well as elastic and viscous moduli of the dough made from SS-treated flours progressively increased with SS treatment time. And both the improvements were more pronounced for superheated steam-treated moistened flours (SS-MF) than for superheated steam-treated native flours (SS-NF). Size-exclusion high performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC) analysis demonstrated that dough rheological parameters have positive correlations with SDS unextractable polymeric proteins (UPP) contents. SS treatment on flours led to a transition of protein secondary structures to more ordered form (α-helix and β-sheet). Additionally, free sulfhydryl (SH) contents decreased after treatment, which implied that disulfide bonds accounted for protein extractability loss and dough rheological properties improvement. Elevated moisture level promoted the modification of both protein structure and dough behaviors of flours during SS treatment.     

The mesoscopic structure in wheat flour dough development

The Farinograph time-to-peak is an important wheat flour quality parameter. It is well-established that insoluble glutenins correlate with the strength of the gluten network and dough mixing time. To learn more about the physical changes at the mesoscopic level, dough samples were prepared in the Farinograph for study with diffusion wave spectroscopy. It was confirmed that a space-filling network was formed by wheat gluten proteins (mainly glutenin). At peak development (9.0 min) it was shown that the starch granules were confined in the gluten network. After the time-to-peak, dough resistance weakened, showing an increase of the starch granule movement. Kneading disrupts insoluble glutenin particles, the disrupted glutenin becomes part of the Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS)-extractable proteins. Both soluble and insoluble wheat protein extracts have been characterized by light scattering techniques. The results derived from light scattering of the wheat protein fractions: particle radii, apparent molar mass and geometrical shapes, suggests that the disrupted glutenin aggregate shape and glutenin size heterogeneity could be more important for gluten network bulk consistency, connectivity and resistance at dough peak, than the apparent molar mass of the solubilized glutenins, reaching a maximum after dough peak.     

Effect of flour type and dough rheological properties on cookie spread measured dynamically during baking

In order to monitor changes that occurred in cookie diameter during baking, a method of calculating cookie diameter was developed using Image Tools software. Cookie images were taken at 30-s intervals during baking using a digital camera. Six biscuit flour types were used in the trial. After the first minutes of baking, a rapid period of expansion started which was significantly different for flour types and finally, after approximately 6th min to the end of baking, cookies showed a slight shrinkage in diameter. A high and significant correlation was found between cookie spread rate and cookie final diameter (r = +0.73, P < 0.001). The technique of lubricated uniaxial compression showed all doughs made from different biscuit flour indicated pseudo-plastic rheological behaviour. However, the measured extensional properties did not correlate with the cookie final diameter.     

Effect of wheat germ flour addition on wheat flour,dough and Chinese steamed bread properties

Wheat germ flour (WGF) has been developed as a functional food ingredient with high nutritional value. In this study, WGF was applied in steamed bread-making in order to improve the quality of Chinese steamed bread (CSB). Partial substitution of wheat flour with WGF at levels of 3%, 6%, 9% and 12% (w/w) was carried out to investigate physicochemical properties of blends and their steaming performance. Falling number (FN) values of composite flours ranged from 199 to 223 s. Viscosity analysis results showed that wheat flour mixed with WGF had higher pasting temperature and lower viscosities. Dough rheological properties were also investigated using farinograph and extensograph. The addition of WGF diluted the gluten protein in dough and formed weak and inextensible dough, which can be studied by scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis. CSB made with WGF had significantly lower volume, specific volume and higher spread ratio. The sensory acceptability and physicochemical quality of CSB were improved with the application of a low level of WGF (3% and 6%). However, results showed that a high level of WGF over 9% is not recommended because of unsatisfactory taste. As a whole, addition of appropriate level of WGF in wheat flour could improve the quality of CSB.     

Wheat flour non-starch polysaccharides and their effect on dough rheological properties

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour is able to form dough with unique rheological properties that allow bread making. It is well known that wheat protein content affects dough rheological properties, but there is not enough evidence about the role of other minor flour constituents. One such minor constituent is non-starch flour polysaccharides, which are mainly pentosans formed by a xylopyranosyl linear chain branched with arabinofuranosyl residues. Their spatial distribution and branching pattern can affect their relationship with gluten forming proteins and thus influence their functional properties, the dough rheological properties, and thereby the flour baking quality. In this study the content and structural characteristics of non-starch polysaccharides were investigated, as well as their influence on some dough physicochemical parameters. Five different wheat flours samples milled from Uruguayan wheat varieties with diverse rheological and breadmaking properties were used in this study. Water soluble flour polysaccharides were extracted and the amount of pentosans was determined by the orcinol-HCl method. The pentoses composition was determined before and after acidic hydrolysis of the water soluble polysaccharide fractions by GC. No free pentoses were detected in any of the assayed flour samples, so the pentoses composition found in the hydrolyzed samples was attributed to the non-starch water soluble polysaccharides. Water unextractable non-starch polysaccharides were determined by difference between the total and the soluble non-starch polysaccharides flour content.An improved method for the quantification of water extractable and non-extractable non-starch polysaccharides, using baker's yeast, was developed. Using this method, total and soluble non-starch polysaccharides content could reliably be determined both in whole flour and in pentosans enriched fractions. Free monosaccharide content was in the range from 0.03% to 0.06% (w/w), while the arabinose/xylose (Ara/Xyl) ratios varied from 0.8 to 1.4 in soluble non-starch polysaccharides and from 0.7 to 0.9 in total non-starch polysaccharides. The different Ara/Xyl ratios found for water extractable and unextractable arabinoxylans clearly indicates different substitution degrees in the polymers. Analysis of the dough rheological parameters in relation to the water soluble and non-soluble non-starch polysaccharides and the Ara/Xyl ratios from different wheat varieties was performed. A clear relation between some of these parameters could be inferred, since a direct relationship between total unextractable (AXi) content and resistance of dough to extension (P), as well an inverse relationship between the same parameter and dough extensibility (L) were observed. These results suggest that the flour non-starch polysaccharide content, as well the Ara/Xyl ratios may be used as additional parameters to estimate some of the wheat flours dough properties.     

Effect of physicochemical and empirical rheological wheat flour properties on quality parameters of bread made from pre-fermented frozen dough

The objective of this study was to examine the influence of flour quality on the properties of bread made from pre-fermented frozen dough. The physicochemical parameters of 8 different wheat flours were determined, especially the protein quality was analysed in detail by a RP-HPLC procedure. A standardized baking experiment was performed with frozen storage periods from 1 to 168 days. Baked bread was characterised for specific loaf volume, crumb firmness and crumb elasticity. The results were compared to none frozen control breads. Duration of frozen storage significantly affected specific loaf volume and crumb firmness. The reduction of specific loaf volume was different among the used flours and its behaviour and intensity was highly influenced by flour properties. For control breads wet gluten, flourgraph E7 maximum resistance and RVA peak viscosity were positively correlated with specific loaf volume. However, after 1–28 days of frozen storage, wet gluten content was not significantly influencing specific loaf volume, while other parameters were still significantly correlated with the final bread properties. After 168 days of frozen storage all breads showed low volume and high crumb firmness, thus no significant correlations between flour properties and bread quality were found. Findings suggest that flours with strong gluten networks, which show high resistance to extension, are most suitable for frozen dough production. Furthermore, starch pasting characteristics were also affecting bread quality in pre-fermented frozen dough.     

Potential use of exogenous lipases for DATEM replacement to modify the rheological and thermal properties of wheat flour dough

The effect of two lipases and DATEM at different concentrations on the rheological and thermal properties of white and whole wheat flour doughs was determined by farinograph, extensograph, texture analyzer and differential scanning calorimetry. Lipases provided similar or better results than that of DATEM on decreasing softening degree and stickiness, and increasing stability, maximum resistance to extension and hardness. Extensibility and energy did not change with lipases, but decreased with DATEM. Lipases and DATEM slightly modified the transition temperatures and enthalpies of ice-melting and starch gelatinization, but significantly increased the moisture and unfrozen water contents, and decreased the solid concentration in unfrozen water. The greatest effect of lipases was observed on decreasing the peak temperature and increasing the enthalpy of amylose–lipid complex dissociation. The changes in the rheological and thermal properties were almost independent of the concentration levels tested, and were mostly reduced when whole wheat flour was used. The improvement in the dough properties by lipases is possibly related to the in situ formation of surface active compounds from endogenous flour lipids. Presumably, these compounds are already located in the right positions in dough, where they might have higher interaction potentials than DATEM with the dough components.     

Effect of barley flour addition on the physico-chemical properties of dough and structure of bread

The effects of different percentages of barley flour (i.e. 0–25%) in wheat flours on the physico-chemical properties and structure of dough and bread were investigated. As the percentage of barley flour in mixed flour was increased, its protein and gluten contents decreased whereas the ash content and enzyme activity increased. The rheological characteristics of the four dough mixes were studied using Farinograph, Extensograph and Alveograph. The water absorption (p < 0.01) and stability (p < 0.05) decreased significantly as the percentage of barley flour increased, while no changes were observed in the extensibility and maximum heights. Significant differences were observed in the structural and physical properties as well as in the image analysis of breads. With the increase in the percentage of barley flour, the crumb apparent density decreased (p < 0.1) whereas the porosity (i.e., fraction to total volume) increased (p < 0.1). Overall, the shape and pore structure at 10% barley flour (W90B10) were similar to the pure wheat flour bread, while addition at 15 and 25% of barley flour (W85B15 and W75B25) showed more non-uniform and larger pores.     

Effect of wheat dietary fibres on bread dough development and rheological properties

Several fractions of wheat fibres were isolated from starchy endosperm, aleurone layer and bran, and characterized for their hydration properties and arabinoxylans (AX) content. The influence of their addition, up to 10%, to standard flour was studied through mixing tests, and rheological tests at small and large deformations. The effect of insoluble AX on dough development was accounted for by their capacity to retain water, whatever their origin and percentage of addition. The addition of insoluble AX increased the viscoelastic plateau modulus. The addition of soluble and insoluble AX to the dough did not modify the overall dough flow behaviour in shear, characterized by a Newtonian plateau at low shear rates followed by shear-thinning behaviour at larger shear rates. This behaviour could be fitted by the Cross model. The addition of water soluble AX modified the Newtonian viscosity value. Conversely, the addition of insoluble ones increased dough consistency, probably through a filler-like effect in the dough matrix.     

Predicting hot-press wheat tortilla quality using flour,dough and gluten properties

A cost-effective, faster and efficient way of screening wheat samples suitable for tortilla production is needed. This research aimed to develop prediction models for tortilla quality (diameter, specific volume, color and texture parameters) using grain, flour and dough properties of 16 wheat flours. Another set of 18 samples was used to validate the models. The prediction models were developed using stepwise multiple regression. Dough rheological tests had higher correlations with tortilla quality than grain and flour chemical tests. Mixograph mixing time and dough resistance to extension (from extensibility test using a texture analyzer) were correlated best with tortilla quality, particularly tortilla diameter (r = −0.87 and −0.86 respectively, P < 0.01). Insoluble polymeric proteins (IPP) and gluten index were significantly correlated with tortilla diameter (r = −0.70 and −0.67 respectively, P < 0.01) and specific volume (r = −0.73, P < 0.01). Tortilla diameter was the quality parameter best explained (R² = 0.86) by the prediction models using mixing time and dough resistance to extension. Rheological parameters such as rupture distance and maximum force were also successfully predicted. These prediction models, developed from linear equations, will be an easy and fast tool for breeders to advance or eliminate wheat lines specifically bred for tortilla production.     

Study of the impact of wheat flour type,flour particle size and protein content in a cake-like dough: Proton mobility and rheological properties assessment

The study of food products is always a challenge due to the number of components involved and the interactions that may occur between them. Water is a particular ingredient which interacts with all hydrophilic compounds, although affinities may differ for limiting water amount. During this study, results obtained using ¹H NMR on cake dough were compared in terms of the effects of flour type (soft or medium hard), the addition of gluten (5%–20%) and the use of soft flour fractions (flour particle fractions smaller or larger than 50 μm). T₂ values and the signal intensities of different proton populations were studied as a function of the wheat protein contents of dough samples. Physicochemical characterization methods were used to better understand how the origin and particle size of flour might impact the hydration properties and mobility of a model system. Increasing the protein content in dough samples was related to an increase of the mobility of fat protons and of the least mobile proton population (relaxation times ranging from 175 to 180 ms and from 5 to 7 ms, respectively).     

Effect of aging at different temperatures on LAOS properties and secondary protein structure of hard wheat flour dough

The effects of aging from t = 0–108 h at two different temperatures (4 and 25 °C) on the non-linear viscoelastic rheological properties and secondary protein structure of hard wheat flour dough (HWD) were investigated using large amplitude oscillatory shear tests (LAOS) coupled with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and SDS-PAGE. Storage (G') and loss (G'') moduli rapidly decreased during aging at 25 °C. Subjecting HWD to progressively longer aging times at 25 °C caused dramatic changes in the non-linear viscoelastic properties demonstrated by strain softening (negative values of e₃/e₁) and shear thinning (negative values of v₃/v₁) behavior. Elastic Lissajous curves of the unaged control dough showed clockwise turn and wider elliptical trajectories as dough aging proceeds especially at higher temperatures. Other non-linear LAOS parameters (G'_M-G''_L, η'_M-η'_L, S and T) supported that aging process at higher temperature caused a progressive change in dough structure from strain stiffening to strain softening behavior while dough samples aged at 4 °C showed fairly close behavior with the control dough sample. FTIR spectra indicated that the relative content of β-sheet and β-turn structures decreased while the content of α-helix structure increased for all dough samples as a result of dough aging. SDS-PAGE results supported the breakdown of high molecular weight (HMW) and low molecular weight (LMW) glutenin subfractions. Aging at the higher temperature of 25 °C decreased the HMW/LMW ratio from 0.77 to 0.59, while the ratio was 0.73 for the dough aged at 4 °C which is fairly close to the control sample. Our results show that the degradation rate of gluten/starch network was triggered by aging at higher temperature, longer aging time, and natural fermentation which resulted in increasing acidity and increase in endogenous proteolytic and amylolytic activity, and also increasing gluten solubility and break down of intermolecular disulfide bonds at acid pH.     

On the relationship between large-deformation properties of wheat flour dough and baking quality

Baking performance for bread and puff pastry was tested for Six European and two Canadian wheat cultivars and related to the rheological and fracture properties in uniaxial extension of optimally mixed flour–water doughs and doughs to which a mix of bakery additives was added. Extensive baking tests were performed as a function of water addition for puff pastry and as a function of water addition and mixing time for bread. For optimum baking performance, puff pastry doughs required lower water additions than bread doughs. Baking performance of the flours differed for the two products. For puff pastry, higher volumes were obtained per gram of flour than for bread. Puff pastry volume was positively correlated with optimum bread dough mixing time, while bread volume was not. Instead, bread volume was positively correlated with gluten protein content.All doughs exhibited strain hardening, a more than proportional increase of the stress with the strain. For all doughs fracture, stress and strain increased with increasing displacement speed of the hook and decreasing temperature. Large differences were observed between the cultivars regarding stress, strain hardening, strain rate-dependency of the stress, fracture stress and fracture strain. At both 25 and 45 °C, addition of a mix of bakery additives resulted in a decrease of the stress at relatively small strains and a significant increase of the strain hardening coefficient. Fracture strains remained the same or increased as a result of addition of the mix. Differences between flours regarding the strain rate and temperature-dependency of the fracture strain remained. The weaker the dough, the stronger the strain rate and temperature-dependency of the fracture strain.Puff pastry volume was positively correlated with strain hardening and negatively with the strain rate-dependency of the stress. In short, the stronger the dough, the higher the puff pastry volume. For bread, it were not the strongest doughs that gave the highest loaf volumes, but those with intermediate dough strength. Low volumes for puff pastry and bread were found for doughs having a low fracture stress and low strain hardening coefficients. Loaf volumes of flours with high dough strength (i.e. high stress-level and high strain hardening) gave intermediate loaf volumes. We concluded that a high stress can hamper the extensibility of dough films between gas cells, thus limiting the expansion of gas cells during fermentation and baking and hence the loaf volume that can be obtained.     

Kinetics of bubble growth in wheat flour dough during proofing studied by computed X-ray micro-tomography

Bread doughs of various compositions were prepared and studied by computed X-ray microtomography (XRT) with high resolution (5 μm). Their cellular structure was followed during the last stage of proofing, from 40 min to 180 min, to focus on the films separating bubbles and their possible coalescence. Image analysis allowed to determine the porosity, the connectivity index, the bubble size and the cell walls thickness distributions which were fitted by usual mathematical functions. Images showed that different compositions led to different cellular structures. The kinetics of porosity and connectivity had sigmoid shapes with 0.7 and 1 as asymptotic values, respectively. For an average formula, mean cell width grew from 410 μm to 675 μm and the mean cell wall thickness grew from 200 μm to 230 μm. At the end of proofing, most bubbles were interconnected, i.e. they were separated by films of thickness lower than 5 μm. Changes of recipe led to different structures, which were discussed through the influence of the liquid fraction and of the sugar content on the coalescence of bubbles. These results suggested that at the end of fermentation, the dough could be considered as a three phase co-continuous medium: gas/liquid/viscoelastic matrix.     

Accelerated ageingof wheat grains: Part I- Influence on rheological properties of wheat flour

Natural ageing is defined as handling and storage of freshly harvested grain for several years under storage condition to achieve suitable flour quality after milling. Accelerated ageing of wheat which is obtained using higher temperature during a specific storage time under controlled relative humidity may improve the quality of wheat flour. The present study addresses the effect of accelerated ageing on the rheological properties of wheat flour produced by freshly harvested wheat. The process of accelerated aging was performed by three different factors including rise in wheat moisture content (16, 18 and 20% w/w), control of storage temperature (30, 40 and 50°C) and control of the storage time (2, 5 and 8 days) using a central composite design. After the grain milling, rheological properties of wheat flour of different treatments were studied. Results indicated that promoting the storage time to 8 days and temperature up to 40°C could improve rheological properties such as dough stability, dough development time and farinograph quality number. This phenomenon may be due to oxidation and rearrangement of disulfide bonds resulting in increasing strength and improving flour quality. Increasing moisture content and storing in higher temperatures resulted in weakening rheological properties.     

Extensional rheological properties in mixed and fermented/rested dough and relationships with steamed bread quality

In this study, sixteen wheat varieties for cultivation in China were examined for the flour characteristics using the farinograph, extensograph and rheofermentometer, uniaxial extensional rheology employing the extensograph and the Kieffer extensibility rig and biaxial extension by uniaxial compression of mixed dough with and without yeast, rested and fermented dough, and steamed bread quality including specific volume and texture properties. Three statistical analysis methods including Pearson correlation, principle component and stepwise multiple regression analysis were carried out to correlate dough properties with steamed bread quality. Biaxial extension viscosity was positively correlated with texture properties (hardness and chewiness) of steamed bread (r = 0.521–0.685, p < 0.05). Based on the correlation coefficients and the model (r² = 0.852, p = 0.003) obtained using stepwise multiple regression analysis, the best predictors for specific volume of steamed bread were the maximum resistance to extension of rested dough (r = 0.664, p < 0.01) and total work for breakage of fermented dough (r = 0.662, p < 0.01). Principal component analysis of rheological properties of fermented dough and flour characteristics provided more useful information for discriminating wheat flour quality and help breeders to select most convenient wheat flour for the steamed bread making.     

How manipulation of wheat bran by superfine-grinding affects a wide spectrum of dough rheological properties

The present study explored the effect of size reduction by superfine grinding on the performance and rheological properties of bran-enriched dough. Coarse (D₅₀ = 328.98 μm) and superfine-ground (D₅₀ = 50.76 and 28.37 μm) wheat brans were incorporated into the wheat dough to replace 10–30% of plain flour. Both fundamental and empirical tests were performed to assess the mixing properties, pasting properties, large deformation rheology, small deformation rheology, and stickiness of the dough. With the increasing amount of bran added, dough water absorption capacity increased, while the dough became less sticky and more rigid. Superfine grinding reduced the water retention capacity of the bran by 17–20%. Dough fortified with the finest bran (D₅₀ = 28.37 μm) showed an overall better stability and uniaxial extensibility. However, the results suggested that superfine grinding not necessarily improve every aspect of dough performance, particularly the pasting properties. High peak and final viscosity were observed for dough fortified with superfine bran, indicating their end products, such as noodle, might exhibit high stickiness after cooking, and a high degree of starch retrogradation. Results of this study contributed to a better understanding of the modification effect of superfine grinding on dietary fibre.     

Effect of microbial transglutaminase on the rheological and thermal properties of insect damaged wheat flour

Proteases in insect damaged wheat disrupt grain protein structure. Transglutaminases catalyse the formation of covalent linkages between protein chains and can be used to restore the properties of the damaged proteins. The effect of increasing transglutaminase levels on the viscoelastic behaviour and thermal stability of damaged wheat was investigated. The results indicate that transglutaminase treatment leads to a more resistant and less extensible dough. Differential scanning calorimetry revealed that the transglutaminase treatment brings the thermal stability of the damaged wheat close to that of undamaged wheat. However, it is necessary to optimise the level of transglutaminase used to obtain the optimum response.