Anthocyanin composition of Cabernet Sauvignon and Tempranillo grapes at different stages of ripening

Changes in anthocyanins during ripening of Cabernet Sauvignon and Tempranillo grapes were studied over a three year period. The accumulation of anthocyanins showed variations during ripening, especially during the first three weeks after veraison, and the accumulation pattern of those molecules changed only slightly from one year to another. On the other hand, the percentages of the different anthocyanins studied were different for each cultivar, and some changes were observed in both cultivars depending on the weather conditions of the growing season. In warm years the percentages of primitive anthocyanins (delphinidin 3-O-glucoside and petunidin 3-O-glucoside) were slightly lower than in a relatively cool year. Nevertheless, the anthocyanin fingerprints of Cabernet Sauvignon and Tempranillo grapes seem to be rather stable during ripening, despite the sugar content of the grapes.     

Composition and cellular localization of tannins in Cabernet Sauvignon skins during growth

For two successive years, cell walls were isolated from the internal part of skin cells of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon grape berries grown in a vineyard. Procyanidin localization and composition were determined over the course of development. Tannins were mainly localized in the inner cell fraction, due to their biosynthesis and storage. Cell wall tannins always exhibited a higher mean degree of polymerization as compared to the internal cell fraction, which had a constant mDP. The mDP of cell wall tannins also tended to increase at the end of maturation. Our results suggest tannin polymerization near the cell wall but an aggregation in the vacuole during growth. The tannin composition was typical of skins, and small differences were noted between the two cell parts. Surprisingly, epigallocatechin-3-gallate was also detected, although in a very small amount. Epicatechin was present in significant proportions in both fractions, especially as an extension subunit, while epigallocatechin was likewise abundant, also as a terminal subunit. Last, procyanidin composition and organization seemed to be characteristic of the Cabernet Sauvignon variety.     

不同施锌量对酿酒葡萄“赤霞珠”锌含量及其品质的影响

以4年生"赤霞珠(Cabernet Sauvignon)"葡萄为研究对象,进行连续2年滴灌[0 kg/hm~2(CK)、24.5 kg/hm~2(T_1)、34.0 kg/hm~2(T_2)、43.5 kg/hm~2(T_3)、53.0 kg/hm~2(T_4)、62.5 kg/hm~2(T_5)]和转色期叶面喷施[0 kg/hm~2(CK)、0.5 kg/hm~2(T_1)、1.0 kg/hm~2(T_2)、1.5 kg/hm~2(T_3)、2.0 kg/hm~2(T_4)、2.5 kg/hm~2(T_5)]两种方式配合施EDTA-Zn的田间试验,探讨强碱性灰钙土(pH8.5)补充锌肥对酿酒葡萄锌含量、生长和品质的影响。结果表明:与不施锌肥(CK)相比,施锌肥处理酿酒葡萄锌含量、粒径、穗长、百粒重和产量分别增加了42.1%～78.7%、2.6%～28.2%、10.1%～22.3%、3.0%～8.8%和17.2%～216.6%。同时,与不施锌(CK)相比,酿酒葡萄的单宁含量降低42.0%～67.9%,花色苷、总酚、可溶性固形物和可溶性糖含量分别提高了0.7%～71.9%、5.0%～80.6%、9.3%～24.0%和10.4%～29.4%,而可滴定酸含量除T_4外没有显著增加。相关分析表明,锌含量与穗长、百粒重、粒径、产量、总酚和可溶性糖均显著相关。综合酿酒葡萄锌含量和品质分析得出T_3处理效果最好。在宁夏贺兰山东麓石灰性土壤条件下,EDTA-Zn施用量45 kg/hm~2左右对于提高酿酒葡萄的锌含量、产量和品质较为适宜。     

Detailed characterization of proanthocyanidins in skin, seeds, and wine of Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon wine grapes (Vitis vinifera)

The distribution of proanthocyanidin (PA) polymer lengths, proanthocyanidin concentration at each polymer length, and polymer composition were determined in the seed, skin, and wine of Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon grape berries grown in southeast Australia. PA was fractionated by semipreparative high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and analyzed by phloroglucinolysis and HPLC to report the degree of polymerization (DP), concentration, and composition at 11 DP values in seed and wine and 21 DP values in skin. In skin, the highest PA concentration was observed at a DP of 31 in Shiraz and 29 in Cabernet Sauvignon representing 15% of the total PA in both varieties. The distribution of seed PA had the highest concentration at a DP of 7 in Shiraz and 6 in Cabernet Sauvignon representing around 30% of the total PA. In the wine PA distribution, the highest concentration was observed at a DP of 11 in Shiraz and 9 in Cabernet Sauvignon representing around 26 and 32% of the distribution, respectively. A second peak in wine PA concentration was observed at the largest DP of 18 in Shiraz and 15 in Cabernet Sauvignon representing around 20% of the distribution. The composition in wine did not vary at different DP, but the proportion of epicatechin gallate varied in seed PA less than 4 DP. The proportion of epigallocatechin increased with increasing DP in skin PA. Wine PA had a DP range and composition similar to the distribution of skin PA between DP 4 and 18 suggesting that larger skin PAs are not extracted into wine. This study provides information that could be used to target the important PA fractions in grapes that need to be measured to understand (or predict) PA extraction into wine and eventual mouthfeel.     

Identification of Cabernet Sauvignon anthocyanin gut microflora metabolites

Anthocyanins are polyphenol antioxidants that have been shown to prevent many chronic diseases, including colon cancer. The compounds are largely metabolized by various enzymes and bacteria in the large intestine, and the health benefits of consuming foods rich in anthocyanins could be due mostly to the effects of these metabolites. In this study, the contents of the large intestine of pigs were used to model anthocyanin metabolism because pig and human intestinal microflora are similar. An anthocyanin extract from Cabernet Sauvignon grapes that contained delphinidin-3-glucoside, petunidin-3-glucoside, peonidin-3-glucoside, and malvidin-3-glucoside was employed. The extract was incubated anaerobically in the contents of the large intestine of freshly slaughtered pigs for 0, 0.5, and 6 h (final concentrations of 20.9, 28.2, 61.4, and 298.0 microM of the above anthocyanin compounds, respectively, at t = 0 h). Anthocyanins and their metabolites were measured by LC-ESI-MS. After 6 h, anthocyanins were no longer detected, and three metabolites were identified as 3-O-methylgallic acid, syringic acid, and 2,4,6-trihydroxybenzaldehyde. Results from this study suggest that consumption of Cabernet Sauvignon grape anthocyanins could lead to the formation of specific metabolites in the human gut, and it is possible that these metabolites offer the protective effect against colon cancer attributed to anthocyanin consumption.     

Effect of oxygen on volatile and sensory characteristics of Cabernet Sauvignon during secondary shelf life

The oxidation of Cabernet Sauvignon wines during secondary shelf life was studied by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled to gas chromatography-quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-qMS) and sensory tests, with the support of multivariate statistical analyses such as OPLS-DA loading plot and PCA score plot. Four different oxidation conditions were established during a 1-week secondary shelf life. Samples collected on a regular basis were analyzed to determine the changes of volatile chemicals, with sensory characteristics evaluated through pattern recognition models. During secondary shelf life the separation among collected samples depended on the degree of oxidation in wine. Isoamyl acetate, ethyl decanoate, nonanoic acid, n-decanoic acid, undecanoic acid, 2-furancarboxylic acid, dodecanoic acid, and phenylacetaldehyde were determined to be associated with the oxidation of the wine. PCA sensory evaluation revealed that least oxidized wine and fresh wine was well-separated from more oxidized wines, demonstrating that sensory characteristics of less oxidized wines tend toward "fruity", "citrous", and "sweetness", while those of more oxidized wines are positively correlated with "animal", "bitterness", and "dairy". The study also demonstrates that OPLS-DA and PCA are very useful statistical tools for the understanding of wine oxidation.     

Effects of early leaf removal on grape yield,chemical characteristics,and antioxidant activity of grape variety Cabernet Sauvignon and wine from eastern Croatia

The aim of this study was to determine the impact of two different treatments of early defoliation performed before blooming on: grape yield, chemical parameters, polyphenols content, and antioxidant activity of grape and red wine cv. Cabernet Sauvignon from the vineyard located in Ilok, the eastern continental region of Croatia. Two different treatments of leaf removal (LR) were performed: removal of 3 leafs (T1) and 6 leafs (T2) before blooming, together with control (no leaf removal) (T3) during two years (2013 and 2014). Crop yield and average cluster weights per vine were determined. Density, pH and titratable acidity were measured in must, while the total phenols, total anthocyanins and antioxidant activity were measured in the extract of grape skin and produced wine. The analysis of individual anthocyanins in wine was performed by HPLC method. T2 treatment significantly lowered the crop yield and the average cluster weights, and increased total phenols, total anthocyanins, antioxidant activity and most abundant individual anthocyanins in wine. Defoliation did not affect the other chemical parameters in must, grape skin extract and wine. Vintage year is statistically the most significant source of variability for density of must, antioxidant activity in grape skin extract, as well as pH and titratable acidity in wine. This study has showed that the early leaf removal treatment in eastern continental part of Croatia could be used for the production of smaller quantity of high quality Cabernet Sauvignon red wine abundant with anthocyanins.     

不同昼夜温差对赤霞珠葡萄果实香气的影响及转录组分析

为探究不同昼夜温差对酿酒葡萄果实成熟期间挥发性香气合成的影响,以酿酒葡萄赤霞珠为试验材料,通过调控夜间温度改变昼夜温差,设置T_-2.6℃(夜间平均温度为17.0℃,温差为15.1℃)、T_0.5℃(夜间平均温度为20.1℃,温差为12.0℃)、T_3.5℃(夜间平均温度为23.1℃,温差为9.0℃)和CK(夜间平均温度为19.6℃,温差为12.5℃)4组处理,测定分析果实中挥发性香气组分和含量的变化,并进行挥发性香气合成机制的生物信息学分析。结果表明,昼夜温差与可溶性固形物、可溶性糖和可滴定酸含量呈正比;T_-2.6℃和T_0.5℃处理提高了赤霞珠果实中的花香和果香,后续在酿酒过程中可提高葡萄酒一类香气的含量,在酿造干红的同时,也宜于酿造起泡桃红类葡萄酒;T_3.5℃处理提高了果实中的烟草香,为后续酿造葡萄酒提供了更多的三类香气,即陈酿香,在较小温差环境下生长的葡萄酿酒后更适宜储存较长时间,以更好地形成陈酿香。共检测到5 111个差异表达基因,其中T_-2....     

Changes in amine concentrations during aging of red wine in oak barrels

This investigation studied the evolution of amines in red wines made with Merlot variety, during aging in American oak barrels (Quercus alba) and in French oak barrels (Quercus sessilis) from the Allier and Nevers regions. From the results obtained it was observed that the evolutions of the amines were similar in all three types of oak woods. Histamine and tyramine were produced at the beginning of the aging process, although they were not accumulated in the wines, probably due to their degradation. Putrescine was the most abundant amine in the wines; its concentration increased to an important extent during aging as it did not undergo degradation. The concentration of cadaverine increased slightly at the first stage of aging and, like putrescine, did not degrade at all. The volatile amines showed slight variations during aging, although in no cases were high accumulations observed in the wines. Dimethylamine and isobutylamine were degraded during storage in the barrels.     

不同酵母在蛇龙珠干红葡萄酒酿造中的应用

该试验在规模化生产条件下对不同酵母的使用效果进行了研究,结果表明在烟台地区,D254酵母比较适合于蛇龙珠干红的发酵,旋转发酵罐发酵的葡萄酒中单宁、总酚含量远高于立式罐发酵的葡萄酒,更为适合陈酿型葡萄酒的酿造.     

渭北旱塬葡萄园土著AM真菌对赤霞珠葡萄促生效应研究

以筛选自渭北旱塬葡萄园的3种土著AM真菌菌株Glomus mosseae(GM)、Glomus intraradices(GI)和Glomus versiforme(GV)为试材,在盆栽条件下研究了3种AM真菌单独接种及混合接种对酿酒葡萄赤霞珠(Cabernet Sauvignon)扦插苗营养生长指标的影响。结果表明,不同接种处理的葡萄幼苗AM真菌侵染程度不同,混合接种显著高于单接种;混合接种GI+GVGM+GVGM+GI,单接种GVGIGM。接种AM真菌促进葡萄幼苗的生长,显著提高植株高度和地上、地下干重,并提高葡萄叶片净光合速率、气孔导度、胞间二氧化碳浓度和蒸腾速率,从而提高葡萄叶片的光合作用;葡萄叶片中叶绿素含量、可溶性糖含量、可溶性蛋白含量均高于未接种对照,且混合接种优于单接种。     

Assessing the aromatic potential of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot musts used to produce rose wine by assaying the cysteinylated precursor of 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol.

The development of a method for assaying S-3-(hexan-1-ol)-L-cysteine, the cysteinylated precursor of 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol (P-3MH), in must has made it possible to study its impact on the aromatic potential of Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon grape varieties used to produce rose wines in Bordeaux. The original feature of this method is the purification of very small volumes of must (500 microL) containing P-3MH by affinity chromatography and gas-phase chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry of the purified precursor in trimethylsilylated derivative form. Assays of the cysteinylated precursor in Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes showed that it was mainly located in the grape skins (60%). Prolonged juice-skin contact increased the must's P-3MH content, and this phenomenon was more marked at higher temperatures. Assessment of the aromatic potential of must used to produce rose wines by chemical analysis of an S-cysteine conjugate is mentioned for the first time.     

Evolution and stability of anthocyanin-derived pigments during Port wine aging.

For three years, the evolution of the three major anthocyanidin monoglucosides (malvidin 3-glucoside, malvidin 3-acetylglucoside, and malvidin 3-coumaroylglucoside) and their anthocyanin-pyruvic acid adducts was monitored in Port wines stored in oak barrels. The degradation reactions of all pigments followed first-order kinetics in all the wines studied. The degradation rate constants of the anthocyanin-pyruvic acid adducts were much lower than those of the anthocyanidin monoglucosides. The results of both anthocyanins and pyruvic acid adducts show that acylation on the sugar moiety of all the pigments decreased their stability in wine. The levels of malvidin 3-glucoside-pyruvic acid adduct and its acylated forms increased right after wine fortification with wine spirit before starting to decrease around 100 days. The initial formation of anthocyanin-pyruvic acid adducts was concurrent with the degradation of anthocyanidin monoglucosides.     

天津地区赤霞珠和梅鹿辄葡萄浆果发育特点和采收期的确定

研究赤霞珠和梅鹿辄葡萄浆果的生长发育过程中形态指标和生理指标结果表明两个葡萄品种浆果的生长动态为双S曲线;在浆果成熟期,含糖量和含酸量的变化与浆果生长发育进程、降雨、温度等有关;接近采收期,含糖量仍持续增长,而含酸量变化相对较小;采收期应根据浆果含糖量、气候变化、含酸量以及果粒形态变化等指标来决定,采前浆果理化指标的测定应在浆果生长转折点出现后进行,并以转折点作为始点.     

Grapevine Irrigation with Saline Water: Effect of Rootstocks on Quality and Yield of Cabernet Sauvignon

The effects of three irrigation salinity levels (1.8, 3.3, and 4.8 dS/m) on ion accumulation and relative turgidity of Cabernet Sauvignon (Vitis vinifea) grapes on ‘Rugerri’ and ‘Salt Creek’ rootstocks were studied in order to introduce more saline water in the Negev Desert of Israel. Leaf samples were taken four times during the summer of 1997 and analyzed for total diffusible ions, which included sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg), and for soluble ions, which included zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn). Quality and quantity of yield were also measured. The lowest relative turgidity, 0.8, was measured at ECi (electrical conductivity of irrigation water) 4.8 dS/m, which decreased with time to 0.75 for all treatments. The Na/K ratio indicated relative sodium accumulation. It increased fast with time from about 0.1 to 1.4 under high salinity and more slowly, from 0.1 to 0.5, under the low-salinity treatment. Average yield of fresh berries under all treatments (except one) ranged between 8.0 and 8.5 kg/vine under the respective saline and fresh-water irrigation. This difference was not significant, but in view of the first-year experiment this result should be regarded as provisional. The juice quality criteria, as determined by the production of total soluble solids (TSS) pH², improved from 321 to 288, indicating low acidity under the saline treatment and higher acidity under the non-saline treatment. The ratio of TSS/acidity, which changed slightly from 34 to 32, also indicated a moderate reduction in acidity under saline conditions, especially under the ‘Ruggeri’ rootstock. Thus, it was concluded that (a) by the use of saline water the quality of the berries may be improved, (b) ‘Ruggeri’ rootstock was less affected than ‘Salt Creek’ by salinity in both quantity and quality of yield, and (c) relative sodium (Na) content in the lamina and the petiole increased with time during the growth period while relative turgidity declined, indicating a possible accumulation of toxic ions over time.     

Formation pathways of ethyl esters of branched short-chain fatty acids during wine aging

The particular behavior during wine aging of fermentative branched fatty acid ethyl esters, related to yeast nitrogen metabolism, compared that of their straight-chain analogues, related to yeast lipid metabolism, was first checked in 1-5 year aged Muscadet wines. Quantitative SIDA measurements showed that the levels of the former increased, whereas those of the latter decreased. Then, three hypothetical pathways suggested in the literature to explain these variations of branched esters were investigated. Two Muscadet and Sylvaner wines were spiked with levels of deuterated isobutanoic acid and its ethyl ester, similar to those of their natural analogues, then they were submitted to model aging. Quantitative SIDA measurements on the formation of these natural and labeled ethyl esters from the corresponding acids revealed that the behavior of the natural and labeled compounds were similar. The acid levels were much higher than the ester levels in the initial young wine, and a significant upward trend of their esterification ratios to those of the acid-ester equilibrium was observed with aging. Thus, this equilibrium proved to be the most effective in generating the branched fatty acid ethyl esters during wine aging. In contrast, the formation of these acids by Strecker-type degradation of wine amino acids in the conditions of the model aging or by hydrolysis of their glycoconjugates proved to be ineffective.