细胞凋亡对宰后肌肉嫩化作用机理的研究进展

嫩度是决定肉食用品质的重要指标。宰后肉的嫩度发生不连续变化,严重降低了消费者的购买意愿,因此阐明宰后嫩化机理一直是肉品科学领域的研究热点。自“凋亡”的概念引入至宰后肌肉嫩化过程后一直广受关注,动物被屠宰放血后,活性氧（reactive oxygen species,ROS）大量累积,ATP（adenosine triphosphate）逐渐耗尽,必然导致细胞死亡。宰后肌细胞死亡和肌肉嫩化都是在一系列调控因子作用下激活肌肉内源酶,并由内源酶水解蛋白质破坏细胞结构,因此这两个生化过程被认为高度相关。本文综述了宰后肌细胞主要以凋亡的形式死亡,分析了除凋亡外,宰后早期产生少量ROS时细胞会通过自噬启动自身防御系统,宰后后期ATP逐渐耗尽肌细胞可能从凋亡转变为坏死;明确了线粒体通路是宰后肌肉中细胞凋亡酶激活的关键路径,线粒体死亡因子释放是细胞内死亡级联反应的总开关,其开放状态直接决定着细胞以何种途径进行死亡,并进一步从线粒体膜通透化和内膜嵴重构两方面,讨论了宰后线粒体损伤诱导凋亡因子的释放机理;综述了线粒体损伤变化及其对嫩化过程的影响,并从线粒体通过参与能量代谢影响肌肉pH以及通过释放凋亡因子调控细胞凋亡酶活性两方面分析了其潜在机理;探讨了宰后肌肉线粒体与内质网间相互作用以影响Ca²⁺信号传导以及细胞凋亡过程,或与溶酶体相互作用,破坏溶酶体膜稳定性,使其释放组织蛋白酶以激活线粒体Bax和Bid而加速线粒体膜通透性;综述了细胞凋亡酶在宰后早期被激活,并参与部分肌原纤维蛋白的有限降解,但随着宰后时间的延长,ATP逐渐耗尽等因素导致细胞凋亡酶失活,因此细胞凋亡酶只参与宰后早期的嫩化过程。综述内容可为完善宰后肌肉嫩化过程提供理论参考。     

细胞自噬在植物天然免疫反应中的作用

在介绍植物细胞自噬的基础上,分析了细胞自噬对超敏反应细胞程序化死亡（HR-PCD）的控制及可能作用于启动HR—PCD的促死亡信号分子等方面作用,指出在植物免疫反应过程中,细胞自噬通过降解对病原菌诱导的HR—PCD产生负调控作用,对于将细胞死亡限制在感染部位具有重要的控制作用。     

GSK3-TIP60-ULK1 signaling pathway links growth factor deprivation to autophagy

In metazoans, cells depend on extracellular growth factors for energy homeostasis. We found that glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3), when deinhibited by default in cells deprived of growth factors, activates acetyltransferase TIP60 through phosphorylating TIP60-Ser(86), which directly acetylates and stimulates the protein kinase ULK1, which is required for autophagy. Cells engineered to express TIP60(S86A) that cannot be phosphorylated by GSK3 could not undergo serum deprivation-induced autophagy. An acetylation-defective mutant of ULK1 failed to rescue autophagy in ULK1(-/-) mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Cells used signaling from GSK3 to TIP60 and ULK1 to regulate autophagy when deprived of serum but not glucose. These findings uncover an activating pathway that integrates protein phosphorylation and acetylation to connect growth factor deprivation to autophagy.     

Cancer immunotherapy: a treatment for the masses

Cancer immunotherapy attempts to harness the exquisite power and specificity of the immune system for the treatment of malignancy. Although cancer cells are less immunogenic than pathogens, the immune system is clearly capable of recognizing and eliminating tumor cells. However, tumors frequently interfere with the development and function of immune responses. Thus, the challenge for immunotherapy is to use advances in cellular and molecular immunology to develop strategies that effectively and safely augment antitumor responses.     

磷脂酶C参与ParA1诱导的烟草悬浮细胞死亡和防卫反应

【目的】研究寄生疫霉Phytophthora parasitica分泌的蛋白激发子ParA1诱导烟草悬浮细胞后,磷脂酶C(phospholipase C,PLC)参与ParA1诱导烟草过敏细胞死亡(hypersensitive cell death,HCD)和防卫反应。【方法】采用药理学方法,在烟草悬浮细胞中添加PLC抑制剂,比较烟草悬浮细胞受ParA1诱导后细胞死亡和多种防卫反应的差别。【结果】PLC特异性抑制剂U73122能完全抑制ParA1引起的烟草悬浮细胞死亡,氧迸发、胞外基质碱化和植保素scopoletin(7-羟基-6-甲氧基香豆素)积累都能显著地被抑制,5种防卫基因hin1、hsr203J、PR(pathogenesis-related)-1a、PR-1b和PAL等的转录表达也都受到U73122不同程度的抑制。【结论】ParA1处理烟草悬浮细胞后,PLC参与了ParA1诱导细胞死亡和防卫反应的信号传导过程。     

Human brain tumor--derived cell lines: growth rate reduced by human fibroblast interferon

The biological response modifier human beta-interferon had pronounced antigrowth effects on various histologic types of human brain tumor cells but no effects on a nontransformed cell line, MRC-5. The cultures of brain tumor cells showed severe alterations indicative of cell injury and death after exposure to beta-interferon for 2 to 6 days. Similar results were obtained with cells freshly explanted from human brain tumors. The results indicate that it may be possible to use fresh, explanted tumor tissue to identify patients who might benefit from therapy with beta-interferon.     

Regulation of an ATG7-beclin 1 program of autophagic cell death by caspase-8

Caspases play a central role in apoptosis, a well-studied pathway of programmed cell death. Other programs of death potentially involving necrosis and autophagy may exist, but their relation to apoptosis and mechanisms of regulation remains unclear. We define a new molecular pathway in which activation of the receptor-interacting protein (a serine-threonine kinase) and Jun amino-terminal kinase induced cell death with the morphology of autophagy. Autophagic death required the genes ATG7 and beclin 1 and was induced by caspase-8 inhibition. Clinical therapies involving caspase inhibitors may arrest apoptosis but also have the unanticipated effect of promoting autophagic cell death.     

新城疫病毒HN蛋白的抑瘤机制及其研究进展

新城疫病毒囊膜上较大的纤突样糖蛋白由新城疫病毒血凝素-神经氨酸酶(HN)基因编码。HN蛋白即血凝素-神经氨酸酶蛋白,它不仅介导病毒吸附于肿瘤细胞,而且与融合蛋白一起帮助病毒侵入肿瘤细胞,其神经氨酸酶活性能水解宿主细胞表面的唾液酸,暴露宿主细胞的生物识别位点。它还能够水解病毒粒子表面糖链末端的唾液酸,防止病毒粒子在宿主表面簇集,并且能够引入新的粘附因子和免疫原性分子,诱导机体免疫系统识别。     

The pathophysiology of mitochondrial cell death

In the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis, caspase activation is closely linked to mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP). Numerous pro-apoptotic signal-transducing molecules and pathological stimuli converge on mitochondria to induce MOMP. The local regulation and execution of MOMP involve proteins from the Bcl-2 family, mitochondrial lipids, proteins that regulate bioenergetic metabolite flux, and putative components of the permeability transition pore. MOMP is lethal because it results in the release of caspase-activating molecules and caspase-independent death effectors, metabolic failure in the mitochondria, or both. Drugs designed to suppress excessive MOMP may avoid pathological cell death, and the therapeutic induction of MOMP may restore apoptosis in cancer cells in which it is disabled. The general rules governing the pathophysiology of MOMP and controversial issues regarding its regulation are discussed.     

Autophagic fungal cell death is necessary for infection by the rice blast fungus

Rice blast is caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea, which elaborates specialized infection cells called appressoria to penetrate the tough outer cuticle of the rice plant Oryza sativa. We found that the formation of an appressorium required, sequentially, the completion of mitosis, nuclear migration, and death of the conidium (fungal spore) from which the infection originated. Genetic intervention during mitosis prevented both appressorium development and conidium death. Impairment of autophagy, by the targeted mutation of the MgATG8 gene, arrested conidial cell death but rendered the fungus nonpathogenic. Thus, the initiation of rice blast requires autophagic cell death of the conidium.     

Does the release of potassium from astrocyte endfeet regulate cerebral blood flow?

Local increases in neuronal activity within the brain lead to dilation of blood vessels and to increased regional cerebral blood flow. Increases in extracellular potassium concentration are known to dilate cerebral arterioles. Recent studies have suggested that the potassium released by active neurons is transported through astrocytic glial cells and released from their endfeet onto blood vessels. The results of computer simulations of potassium dynamics in the brain indicate that the release of potassium from astrocyte endfeet raises perivascular potassium concentration much more rapidly and to higher levels than does diffusion of potassium through extracellular space, particularly when the site of a potassium increase is some distance from the vessel wall. On the basis of this finding, it is proposed that the release of potassium from astrocyte endfeet plays an important role in regulating regional cerebral blood flow in response to changes in neuronal activity.     

The protein kinase domain of the ANP receptor is required for signaling

A plasma membrane form of guanylate cyclase is a cell surface receptor for atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). In response to ANP binding, the receptor-enzyme produces increased amounts of the second messenger, guanosine 3',5'-monophosphate. Maximal activation of the cyclase requires the presence of adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) or nonhydrolyzable ATP analogs. The intracellular region of the receptor contains at least two domains with homology to other proteins, one possessing sequence similarity to protein kinase catalytic domains, the other to regions of unknown function in a cytoplasmic form of guanylate cyclase and in adenylate cyclase. It is now shown that the protein kinase-like domain functions as a regulatory element and that the second domain possesses catalytic activity. When the kinase-like domain was removed by deletion mutagenesis, the resulting ANP receptor retained guanylate cyclase activity, but this activity was independent of ANP and its stimulation by ATP was markedly reduced. A model for signal transduction is suggested in which binding of ANP to the extracellular domain of its receptor initiates a conformational change in the protein kinase-like domain, resulting in derepression of guanylate cyclase activity.     

Cell surface P-glycoprotein associated with multidrug resistance in mammalian cell lines

The plasma membranes of hamster, mouse, and human tumor cell lines that display multiple resistance to drugs were examined by gel electrophoresis and immunoblotting. In every case, increased expression of a 170,000-dalton surface antigen was found to be correlated with multidrug resistance. This membrane component is of identical molecular size and shares some immunogenic homology with the previously characterized P-glycoprotein of colchicine-resistant Chinese hamster ovary cells. This finding may have application to cancer therapy.     

Proapoptotic BAX and BAK: a requisite gateway to mitochondrial dysfunction and death

Multiple death signals influence mitochondria during apoptosis, yet the critical initiating event for mitochondrial dysfunction in vivo has been unclear. tBID, the caspase-activated form of a "BH3-domain-only" BCL-2 family member, triggers the homooligomerization of "multidomain" conserved proapoptotic family members BAK or BAX, resulting in the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria. We find that cells lacking both Bax and Bak, but not cells lacking only one of these components, are completely resistant to tBID-induced cytochrome c release and apoptosis. Moreover, doubly deficient cells are resistant to multiple apoptotic stimuli that act through disruption of mitochondrial function: staurosporine, ultraviolet radiation, growth factor deprivation, etoposide, and the endoplasmic reticulum stress stimuli thapsigargin and tunicamycin. Thus, activation of a "multidomain" proapoptotic member, BAX or BAK, appears to be an essential gateway to mitochondrial dysfunction required for cell death in response to diverse stimuli.     

细胞自噬与多囊卵巢综合征研究进展

多囊卵巢综合征（Polycystic ovary syndrome,PCOS）是导致女性月经不调、排卵障碍性不孕的主要原因,确切发病机制尚未阐明。自噬可以发生在卵泡发育的各个阶段,卵泡颗粒细胞自噬相对活跃,具有促性腺激素依赖性和细胞特异性。卵泡颗粒细胞自噬稳态平衡以维持卵巢功能,调控卵泡发育,影响胚胎质量和妊娠结局。PCOS卵泡颗粒细胞自噬活性过高,自噬相关基因表达过强,与PCOS卵泡发育异常、内分泌代谢紊乱、临床自然流产率高和辅助生殖中发生卵巢过度刺激综合征风险增高密切相关,可能是PCOS发病的重要机制。补肾中药通过下调PCOS卵泡颗粒细胞过度自噬,改善卵巢功能,维持机体阴阳平衡,但具体作用机制亟待进一步阐明,为PCOS、不孕症等妇科疑难病症临床诊疗提供新思路。     

In vivo administration of anti-CD3 prevents malignant progressor tumor growth

Malignant progressor tumors are only weakly immunogenic and can evade host recognition and rejection. One approach to therapy involves activation of the host antitumor cellular effector mechanisms. Since monoclonal antibodies to CD3 (anti-CD3) can activate T cells in vitro, an attempt was made to determine if tumor immunity could be achieved by the administration of anti-CD3 in vivo. T lymphocytes from mice injected with anti-CD3 showed increased interleukin-2 receptor (IL-2R) expression, increased proliferation to recombinant IL-2 (rIL-2), and enhanced reactivity in both an allogeneic mixed lymphocyte reaction and a mixed lymphocyte tumor culture. Malignant tumor growth in treated mice was also examined. The anti-CD3 treatment prevented tumor outgrowth that would have killed untreated animals and also stimulated an in vivo response against a malignant progressor tumor providing lasting tumor immunity.     

iRhom2 regulation of TACE controls TNF-mediated protection against Listeria and responses to LPS

Innate immune responses are vital for pathogen defense but can result in septic shock when excessive. A key mediator of septic shock is tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), which is shed from the plasma membrane after cleavage by the TNFα convertase (TACE). We report that the rhomboid family member iRhom2 interacted with TACE and regulated TNFα shedding. iRhom2 was critical for TACE maturation and trafficking to the cell surface in hematopoietic cells. Gene-targeted iRhom2-deficient mice showed reduced serum TNFα in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and could survive a lethal LPS dose. Furthermore, iRhom2-deficient mice failed to control the replication of Listeria monocytogenes. Our study has identified iRhom2 as a regulator of innate immunity that may be an important target for modulating sepsis and pathogen defense.     

Phosphorylation of ULK1 (hATG1) by AMP-activated protein kinase connects energy sensing to mitophagy

Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a conserved sensor of intracellular energy activated in response to low nutrient availability and environmental stress. In a screen for conserved substrates of AMPK, we identified ULK1 and ULK2, mammalian orthologs of the yeast protein kinase Atg1, which is required for autophagy. Genetic analysis of AMPK or ULK1 in mammalian liver and Caenorhabditis elegans revealed a requirement for these kinases in autophagy. In mammals, loss of AMPK or ULK1 resulted in aberrant accumulation of the autophagy adaptor p62 and defective mitophagy. Reconstitution of ULK1-deficient cells with a mutant ULK1 that cannot be phosphorylated by AMPK revealed that such phosphorylation is required for mitochondrial homeostasis and cell survival during starvation. These findings uncover a conserved biochemical mechanism coupling nutrient status with autophagy and cell survival.     

In situ imaging of the endogenous CD8 T cell response to infection

Mounting a protective immune response is critically dependent on the orchestrated movement of cells within lymphoid organs. We report here the visualization, using major histocompatability complex class I tetramers, of the CD8-positive (CD8) T cell response in the spleens of mice to Listeria monocytogenes infection. A multistage pathway was revealed that included initial activation at the borders of the B and T cell zones followed by cluster formation with antigenpresenting cells leading to CD8 T cell exit to the red pulp via bridging channels. Strikingly, many memory CD8 T cells localized to the B cell zones and, when challenged, underwent rapid migration to the T cell zones where proliferation occurred, followed by egress via bridging channels in parallel with the primary response. Thus, the ability to track endogenous immune responses has uncovered both distinct and overlapping mechanisms and anatomical locations driving primary and secondary immune responses.