Teaching insights from adult learning theory

How do undergraduate and graduate students learn? How can we use what we know about the learning process to teach more effectively? While the research has yet to connect fundamental processes in the brain to what we do as teachers with certainty, the past half-century of work on adult learning has produced several useful theories that can inform instructional choices. This article provides an overview of three learning models that yield insights into teaching practice--novice/expert behaviors, cognitive development, and learning styles--along with ways in which instructors can draw on these models in course planning and classroom teaching. Application of the theories toward refinement, reduction, and replacement of live animals in the veterinary medical curriculum is also discussed.     

Non-linear, visual-rich supplemental material designed for an introductory course in veterinary anesthesia

A possible reason for superficial learning in an introductory anesthesia course was considered to be a lack of visual reinforcement at the time of examination preparation. Students had limited access to live animal laboratories and clinical cases during the course, reducing their ability to depend on experiential learning. In an attempt to improve student learning, simple presentation software was used to develop a supplemental CD. The design involved multiple PowerPoint presentations that incorporated text, pictures, videos, and self-assessments. Non-linear exploration of the topics covered was made possible by extensive use of hyperlinks within and between presentations, moving the student to definitions, background material, videos, advanced details, and previously covered information. Comments received from students on a prototype were positive overall, and improvements were made related to their feedback. Other supplemental materials and lecture presentations can easily incorporate the techniques described here.     

Mainstreaming alternatives in veterinary medical education: resource development and curricular reform

Veterinary medical educators are charged with preparing students to enter practice in veterinary medicine during a four-year, intensive, professional education program. This requires giving students in laboratory training that involves dead, anesthetized, or conscious animals, so that they become proficient in the expected range of veterinary knowledge, skills, and abilities. Undeniably, experience with animals is essential to prepare students for a profession in which animals comprise the total domain. However, the consumptive use of animals for teaching students, especially in laboratories, is increasingly subject to regulatory requirements, while also being scrutinized by animal protection groups, and has become a common focus of contention among veterinary students. Not surprisingly, the use of animals in teaching has sharply declined over the past few decades, as new teaching resources and methods, involving less consumptive use of animals, have been incorporated. This change in veterinary medical education has occurred on such a wide scale, in almost all veterinary schools and colleges, that the educational approach can serve as a model for further developments within the veterinary educational community and, indeed, for animal-related material in secondary schools and undergraduate higher education. This article highlights examples of the leadership provided by veterinary educators in developing alternative teaching resources and methods, while maintaining the high level of proficiency expected from traditional educational approaches.     

A model for improving student confidence and experience in diagnostic sample collection and interpretation

Confidence and proficiency in diagnosing and treating a variety of diseases is of obvious importance to veterinary students. Traditional teaching methods relying on live-animal laboratories or teaching-hospital cases may not provide the breadth and depth of experience necessary to promote optimal development of confidence and skills. These settings also raise concerns about expense, about animal welfare when animals are used in teaching laboratories, and about the stress and potential risks associated with client-owned pets in the teaching hospital. A one-week course implemented in our veterinary curriculum provides the opportunity for students to develop self-assurance and experience in sample collection and interpretation skills in a realistic, clinical-model setting. This course provides students with significantly improved levels of confidence when performing procedures and interpreting results from a variety of procedures and helps prepare them to become clinicians entering the practice of veterinary medicine.     

新冠肺炎疫情背景下案例教学和PBL相融合的畜牧微生物学课程思政教学设计

在畜牧微生物学课程融入思政元素有助于建立动物科学专业学生正确的思想道德体系和坚定的理想信念。问题导向式学习(Problem-Based Learning, PBL)的教学方法是畜牧微生物学课程思政教学设计的重要手段,以鲜活的人物事迹和历史事件为案例,通过提出问题,启发学生理解其中的思政内涵,进一步提高其思想道德品质。在新型冠状病毒肺炎(COVID-19)疫情背景下,如何将其中蕴含的思政元素与课程教学有效的融合,应纳入畜牧微生物学课程思政教学的任务中,本文就此进行了深入探讨。基于新冠疫情中涌现出的人物、事迹和相关事件,经启发式发问引导学生进行思考讨论,有效提高学生的课堂参与度,结合专业知识的学习和讲解,使学生认识到“新冠疫情”案例中的思想道德意义,进而内化成自身的理想信念,让学生努力探索科学真谛的同时,培养自身的家国情怀以及对所学专业的高度认同感的目的。     

Swine viscera preservation in hypersaturated salt solution after alcohol fixation as a preparation method for educational purposes

The use of live animals for educational purposes is an old practice that is still employed in teaching and research institutions. However, there are several objections to this practice, whether for ethical or humanitarian reasons. Surgical techniques teaching using anatomical pieces and/or preserved cadavers promotes greater learning efficiency, provides exercise repetition and increases the confidence and satisfaction of the students when compared to the use of live animals. The current work aimed to analyse the feasibility of using fresh swine urinary bladder and small intestines (jejunum), obtained from slaughterhouses, fixed in 99.8% ethyl alcohol (EA) and preserved in sodium chloride hypersaturated solution (SCHS) at 30%, for 7, 14 and 21 days, as an alternative method for surgical skills training (SST). Swine viscera, fixed in EA and preserved in SCHS, presented a realistic appearance, absence of odour and maintained the viable morphological characteristics during the performance of the operative techniques. Preservation solutions had low cost, were easy to acquire and did not offers risks to human health. Therefore, urinary bladders and small intestines fixed in 99.8% EA for 30 days and maintained in 30% SCHS at different periods were demonstrated as a good viable option as a preservation method for surgical skills training.     

Training veterinary personnel for effective identification and diagnosis of exotic animal diseases

The requirements for exotic animal disease (EAD) training were considered at a workshop organized for those with responsibilities for EAD response management in the different states of Australia, with the objective of identifying the optimum strategy for training veterinarians to identify and act upon EADs. It was concluded that there should be specialized within-country training in EAD recognition for an elite group of diagnostic veterinarians who are required to recognize the major exotic diseases of animals, instigate the correct procedures to confirm the diagnosis of the disease, and undertake appropriate measures for effective initial management of the disease. The use of live, deliberately infected animals for demonstration purposes is not currently supported by any research indicating an improved learning outcome compared with that from alternatives, such as videos, necropsy specimens, and dedicated computer-aided learning packages. Therefore, ethical requirements to minimize the use of animals in teaching and research may prevent live-animal use. It is concluded that training should take place within each country via a course of instruction that includes an initial intensive course followed by continued professional development, with examination of knowledge at the end of each.     

Second round of an interlaboratory comparison of SARS-CoV2 molecular detection assays used by 45 veterinary diagnostic laboratories in the United States

The COVID-19 pandemic presents a continued public health challenge. Veterinary diagnostic laboratories in the United States use RT-rtPCR for animal testing, and many laboratories are certified for testing human samples; hence, ensuring that laboratories have sensitive and specific SARS-CoV2 testing methods is a critical component of the pandemic response. In 2020, the FDA Veterinary Laboratory Investigation and Response Network (Vet-LIRN) led an interlaboratory comparison (ILC1) to help laboratories evaluate their existing RT-rtPCR methods for detecting SARS-CoV2. All participating laboratories were able to detect the viral RNA spiked in buffer and PrimeStore molecular transport medium (MTM). With ILC2, Vet-LIRN extended ILC1 by evaluating analytical sensitivity and specificity of the methods used by participating laboratories to detect 3 SARS-CoV2 variants (B.1; B.1.1.7 [Alpha]; B.1.351 [Beta]) at various copy levels. We analyzed 57 sets of results from 45 laboratories qualitatively and quantitatively according to the principles of ISO 16140-2:2016. More than 95% of analysts detected the SARS-CoV2 RNA in MTM at ≥500 copies for all 3 variants. In addition, for nucleocapsid markers N1 and N2, 81% and 92% of the analysts detected ≤20 copies in the assays, respectively. The analytical specificity of the evaluated methods was >99%. Participating laboratories were able to assess their current method performance, identify possible limitations, and recognize method strengths as part of a continuous learning environment to support the critical need for the reliable diagnosis of COVID-19 in potentially infected animals and humans.     

问题导向和案例教学法在《动物遗传学》教学中应用初探

为适应应用型人才和复合型人才培养目标,积极探索教学思路和方法改革,本课程团队在动物遗传学教学中探索了问题导向学习和案例教学方法。本文探讨了教学中思维导图的使用、以学生学为主的引导式教学以及案例教学的运用方法和实例。     

Training in animal handling for veterinary students at Charles Sturt University, Australia

Charles Sturt University in New South Wales, Australia, is responding to a national need for veterinarians with the skills and attributes to fulfill roles in rural practice and the large-animal industries. Rural practitioners must competently and confidently handle a range of large animals if they are to build a relationship of mutual trust with clients and deliver effective animal-health services. Training in animal handling begins in the first year of the course with highly structured small-group practical classes involving cattle, horses, sheep, dogs, cats, pigs, poultry, and laboratory animals (rats and mice). Other experiences with animals in the first three years build on basic animal-handling skills while performing other veterinary activities. Students who provide documented evidence of prior animal-handling experiences are admitted, and learning and teaching strategies aim to enhance skills and knowledge. Rigorous examinations use a competency-based approach prior to extramural placements on farms and in veterinary practices. A continuing process of evaluation, review, and refinement will ensure continual improvement and graduate veterinarians with strong skills in animal handling.     

Development of a teaching laboratory aid for instruction of fine needle aspiration biopsy cytology technique

Specialized training is required to obtain adequate cytology smears by needle aspiration biopsy. An educational method that would provide opportunity for numerous trainees to acquire needle aspiration biopsy and cytodiagnostic skills, and which would not result in the interruption of teaching hospital patient care nor result in the use or sacrifice of animals from laboratory animal resources was sought. An aspiration biopsy cytology teaching aid was developed by placing portions of fresh organ tissue from routine submissions to the necropsy laboratory into a specimen container partially filled with chilled normal saline solution. Specimens were stored immersed in saline at 4 degrees C for up to 48 hours. Prior to the cytopathology teaching laboratory period, the specimen container was removed from storage and covered with a latex diaphragm. Instructors responsible for teaching cytodiagnostic techniques used this ex vivo aspiration biopsy cytology device for instruction of fine needle aspiration biopsy, specimen processing, and microscopy. In the teaching laboratory, puncture of the diaphragm and aspiration of a tissue sample with hypodermic needle and syringe was instructed to, and practiced by, numerous trainees simultaneously using clinical operative technique without the need for live animals. Trainees prepared and stained cytology smears as well as evaluated and interpreted specimens in a single, realistic exercise. Such training experience may improve ability of trainees to procure diagnostic-quality biopsy specimens for cytodiagnosis of lesions from clinic patients.     

Sialography of sheep parotid and mandibular salivary glands

The anatomy of ovine salivary glands was studied on cadaver heads. The mandibular duct enters the oral cavity on the ventral surface of sublingual caruncles, which are located medial to the orifice of the ventral sublingual gland duct. The parotid gland duct enters the oral cavity on the cheek opposite the upper 2nd molar. Prior to applying sialography to live animals, the procedure was carried out on cadaver heads then the live animals were sedated, the mandibular and parotid ducts catheterized and contrast medium was injected into each gland. Lateral radiographs were made immediately after the injection. The normal sheep mandibular and parotid salivary glands have a multilobular appearance in cadaver heads, but in live animal only the ducts and their smaller branches could be identified. The mean diameter of mandibular and parotid duct were 1.4+/-0.3 mm and 3. 1+/-1.0 mm respectively. The monostomatic sublingular gland had a slender shape in the sialogram. In conclusion sialography of mandibular, parotid and sublingual salivary glands in sheep is practical and can be helpful in diagnosis of pathological conditions of these glands.     

Training and Certification of Farm Animal Care in Teaching and Research Institutions

Fane animal worker training and certification programs are currently not available. Programs are needed for training and certification of farm animal workers in teaching and research facilities at universities and companies and on commercial farms. Consumers support farm animal welfare assurances. Although the focus of this paper is the development of programs for teaching and research institutions, commodity-based assurance programs and laboratory animal worker training programs provide models for future programs that could provide assurance of acceptable farm animal care. The Federation of Animal Science Societies (FASS) training tapes on the use of farm animals in teaching and research are a first step toward the development of a full menu of training products for farm animal care. The FASS Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Research and Teaching (Ag Guide) should provide a template for science-based training materials for people who work with farm animals.     

Features that contribute to the usefulness of low-fidelity models for surgical skills training

For practical, ethical and economic reasons, veterinary surgical education is becoming increasingly dependent on models for training. The limited availability and high cost of commercially produced surgical models has increased the need for useful, low-cost alternatives. For this reason, a number of models were developed to be used in a basic surgical skills course for veterinary students. The models were low fidelity, having limited resemblance to real animals. The aim of the present study was to describe the students' learning experience with the models and to report their perception of the usefulness of the models in applying the trained skills to live animal surgery. One hundred and forty-six veterinary fourth-year students evaluated the models on a four-point Likert scale. Of these, 26 additionally participated in individual semistructured interviews. The survey results showed that 75 per cent of the students rated the models 'useful'/'very useful'. Interviews revealed that tactile, dimensional, visual, situational and emotional features are important to students' perception of a successful translation of skills from models to live animal. In conclusion, low-fidelity models are useful educational tools in preparation for live animal surgery. However, there are specific features to take into account when developing models in order for students to perceive them as useful.     

PBL模式《小动物透明标本制作与技术改良》建设与教学探索

《小动物透明标本制作与技术改良》课程引入国际流行的PBL(Problem based learning)教学模式,通过教师引导,学生自主学习、讨论制定实验方案,主动动手操作,并总结汇报实验成果的教学流程,探讨小动物透明标本的制作方法及技术改良手段,以及创新性实验课程的开设模式.教学实践表明:基于PBL的实验教学模式不仅...     

Evaluation of a Hemostasis Model for Teaching Basic Surgical Skills

The need for alternative methods of teaching veterinary medicine and surgery has increased in recent years because of increasing costs and changing public opinion. For these reasons a hemostasis model was developed that mimics the arteries and veins of the peripheral vascular system, and can be used to teach the basic skills involved in blood vessel ligation and division. This study evaluated the effectiveness of the fluid hemostasis model compared with using live animals for teaching these skills. Forty sophomore veterinary students participated in the study. Two groups of 20 students each received identical instruction in the basic techniques required for vessel ligation and division. The students then completed various exercises using inanimate models to objectively evaluate their psychomotor skills. Both groups then practiced the techniques for equal time periods; one group used the hemostasis model and the other performed a splenectomy on live dogs. After the practice session, the students were videotaped (for later evaluation), as they performed vessel ligations and divisions. The students then repeated the exercises using the inanimate models for evaluation of skills improvement. Questionnaire responses before and after the project were obtained to determine the students' views on the need for inanimate models for teaching purposes. Results of this study indicate that the hemostasis model was as effective as live animals for teaching the basic skills involved in blood vessel ligation. The students' opinions regarding the use of properly designed inanimate models for teaching these skills were dramatically changed.     

Learning and the training of farm animals

The focus of learning studies shifted considerably about 30 years ago. Research moved away from using farm species as experimental animals (that is, as a tool) in which to study learning theory, to a genuine interest in the learning abilities and training processes of individual species. Growing use is being made of operant conditioning and other learning techniques to assess how animals learn from experience and their ability to control their environment to improve their well-being. The processes involved in extinguishing undesirable behaviors and establishing behaviors more compatible with farming operations, the use of handling during early sensitive periods, and the careful habituation of animals to intensive farming conditions and modern automated systems complement the on-going genetic selection of farm animals more suited to modern farms. Learning is an important way for animals to cope with and adapt to changing environments and, as such, is fundamental to their general well-being. Learning in farm animals is of vital concern to veterinarians, agricultural engineers, and those involved with animal husbandry and welfare.     

微量元素锌在动物健康及营养中的研究进展

本文从锌对动物免疫、组织细胞结构完整性、生长繁殖能力等方面论述了锌的生理生化功能，并提出了如何在畜牧业生产中应用锌提高动物生产能力。对进一步研究锌在动物体的作用机理，将锌应用于畜牧业生产实际具有一定的参考价值。     

Evaluation of a cloned Babesia bovis organism as a live immunogen

A Babesia bovis isolate was cloned by in vitro cultivation and compared to the original cultured isolate for pathogenicity by animal inoculation. Four yearling heifers were inoculated with cloned material and 4 with the original culture. The four animals which received the cloned Babesia showed comparatively minor hematologic changes and no clinical signs. One animal died in the group that received uncloned Babesia and the mean temperature increase and mean reduction in packed cell volume (PCV) was greater in that group. The four animals receiving the cloned material were challenged 100 days following initial inoculation. All of the animals were totally immune with no significant change in temperature or decrease in PCV, whereas control (previously non-inoculated) animals developed significant (P less than 0.001) increases in temperature and severe anemia. The cloned organism appears to be a candidate live immunogen for use in endemic areas to induce protection against bovine babesiosis.