Socio-economic determinants of smallholder plantation sizes in Ghana and options to encourage reforestation

Reforestation, particularly in the tropics, is of crucial importance for the environment as well as society. However, small planting areas and low participation of smallholder farmers in tree planting programmes often obstruct realisation of set planting area targets. In this regard, we interviewed smallholder farmers undertaking indigenous species reforestation in Oda Kotoamso community within the Wassa Amenfi West District in Western Region of Ghana with a pre-tested questionnaire to identify (1) key socio-economic factors that predict the size of plantations they establish, (2) options that could encourage tree planting among smallholder farmers, and (3) tree species planted by the smallholder farmers and their conservation status according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Key socio-economic factors were predicted with multiple regression models and ANOVA. Options were ranked on a five-point Likert scale and their differences were tested with the Mann–Whitney U test. Age and income of smallholders are the significant predictors of plantation sizes but farmers’ household size and gender were not significant. Age and income accounted for 77.1% and 22.9%, respectively, of the total variation described by our model (R?² = 38.4%). In order of importance, incentives (mean = 4.35, SD = 0.48), public nurseries (mean = 4.2, SD = 0.82) and agroforestry (mean = 4.06, SD = 0.56) were the options that could encourage reforestation, though incentives and public nurseries were not significantly different (p > 0.05). Almost half (9 of 19) of the tree species planted are categorised as Vulnerable species, which highlights the contribution of smallholder farmers to recovery of threatened tree species. Our findings suggest that sustainable provision of planting materials in incentivised and youth-based tree planting programmes could increase planting hectarage and conserve threatened tree species.     

Small-scale forestry development in Leyte,Philippines: The central role of nurseries

This paper presents results of survey research into the role of the forestry nursery sector in the development of smallholder forestry in Leyte, Philippines. Seedling production in the province is basically carried out by three categories of nurseries: individual, communal and the government. Seedlings in the government nurseries are primarily raised for free distribution to landholders but the extension scheme fails to reach the majority of the smallholder farmers. Seedling demand of landholders is mostly catered for by the more numerous and accessible individual and communal nurseries. However, problems of capital outlay, sources and supply of germplasm, technical knowledge in nursery management for both timber and fruit trees and low sales are among the major impediments in the sustainability of small-scale nurseries. Most of the communal nurseries fail to sustain the operation after the withdrawal of supporting agencies. Knowledge on site-species matching is needed not only by small-scale nursery operators but also by the managers of government nurseries. It is concluded that the seedling industry in the province is not well established and there is a need to organise better the overall nursery system so as to improve the availability of seedlings and promote appropriate site and species combinations.     

The performance of community organisers in promotion of community forestry in Leyte Province,Philippines

A study was conducted to assess the role and effectiveness of community organisers in supporting the development of people’s organisations in achieving community-based forest management objectives in Leyte Province Philippines. Community organisers were found to be effective in forming people’s organisations (POs), motivating people to participate in voluntary activities organised by POs and encouraging cohesiveness among PO members. Community organisers manage to raise the level of environmental awareness and knowledge of members of people’s organisations, develop leadership interest and skills, create various livelihood opportunities and provide direction and facilitate the establishment of large tree plantations. However, the short duration of community organisers’ contracts (typically two years) is insufficient to establish mature and cohesive POs prepared to assume management on their own, including the management of tree plantations. Further, lack of training and funding support, low wages, delayed payment of salaries and limited time to work with people’s organisations, as well as the pressure to produce tangible outputs such the establishment of large tree plantations, prevents them from placing greater emphasis on the development and empowerment of the people.     

Land tenure and farm management efficiency: The case of smallholder rubber production in customary land areas of Sumatra

This study assesses the impact of land tenure institutions on the efficiency of farm management based on a case study of rubber production in customary land areas of Sumatra, Indonesia. Using the modes of land acquisition as measures of land tenure institutions, we estimated tree planting, revenue, income, and short-run profit functions, and internal rates of return to tree planting on smallholder rubber fields. We find generally insignificant differences in the incidence of tree planting and management efficiency (defined as residual profits) of rubber production between newly emerging private ownership and customary ownership. This is consistent with our hypothesis that tree planting confers stronger individual rights, if land rights are initially weak (as in the case of family land under customary land tenure systems). On the other hand, short-term profits are higher on land that is rented through share tenancy. This result indicates that rubber trees are over-exploited under renting arrangements due partly to the short-run nature of the land tenancy contracts and partly to the difficulty landowners face in supervising tapping activities of tenants in spatially dispersed rubber fields. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Extent,distribution and origin of non-native forest tree species in Europe

ABSTRACT

The management of non-native tree species in European forests has a long history, but the information on the current number and geographic distribution of these species in European forests is incomplete and scattered across various datasets. This study aims to perform an inventory of the most frequent non-native tree species growing in European forests and analyse their current extent, geographic distribution and geographic origin. Our results show that at least 150 non-native tree species are currently growing in European forests and provenance trials. The genera represented by largest number of species are Eucalyptus, Pinus, Acacia and Abies. Species growing at the largest areas are Robinia pseudoacacia (2.44 million ha), Eucalyptus globulus (1.46 million ha), Picea sitchensis (1.16 million ha) and Pseudotsuga menziesii (0.83 million ha). In total, non-native tree species in Europe are found in an area of approximately 8.54 million ha, or 4.0% of the European forest area, and the five most abundant species account for up to 77% of this area. The largest number of these 150 species were introduced from North America (71), followed by Asia (45) and Australia (20). North American species occupy by far the largest area.     

宝中铁路防沙护路林带树种选择及营造技术研究

通过对宝中铁路防沙护路林带树种选择及营造技术４年的试验研究，筛选出沙枣、柠条、花棒、柽柳、沙木蓼等５个较耐干旱且生长稳定的树种，并选出了其适生的土壤类型、造林密度、适宜的灌溉定额以及提高沙枣造林成活率的修剪措施，使年降水量２００ｍｍ左右的风沙危害地段，造林成活率、保存率达到８５％以上，且林带树木生长状况良好，已发挥了防护效益。     

Variability and grouping of leaf traits in multi-species reforestation (Leyte,Philippines)

Conventional reforestation in the tropics often results in stands with low tree species and functional diversities. A different approach to reforestation, the so-called rainforestation, has been developed in the Philippines. It emphasizes mixed stands and the preferential use of native species supplemented by fruit trees. In such stands, we studied several functional leaf traits (stomatal conductance for water vapour, leaf morphology and chemistry) with the objectives (1) of assessing the species-specific variation of leaf traits and in particular that of maximal leaf stomatal conductance (g_smax), (2) of determining relationships between g_smax and other tree variables, and (3) of assessing whether leaf traits group the species studied. Sixteen broad-leaved species were studied, using five individual trees per species and ten fully expanded sunlit leaves per individual tree. Species-specific g_smax differed fivefold (165–772 mmol m⁻² s⁻¹). Among studied leaf traits, only the carbon isotope ratio δ¹³C exhibited a simple linear correlation with g_smax. A separate analysis for dipterocarp species indicated a strong negative relationship between g_smax and specific leaf area (SLA) (r² = 0.96, P < 0.001, n = 5). For all 16 species, a multiple linear regression with the combinations leaf size/tree height and leaf size/canopy projection area also resulted in significant relationships, which partly explained the variability in g_smax. A multivariate approach (principal component analysis) combining the leaf traits provided an explanation of 75% of the variability along the first two axes. All native dipterocarps species, a native Guttiferae and the durian tree (Durio zibethinus) were associated with more depleted δ¹³C, small leaves and a low leaf width to length ratio. Two exotic species frequently used for reforestation (Gmelina arborea and Swietenia macrophylla) and the native early successional Terminalia microcarpa were differentiated by their high SLA and high leaf nitrogen content per leaf area (N_area). Both species of Artocarpus (A. blancoi and A. odoratissima) were also differentiated and had large leaves with low SLA and low N_area. These associations of species with leaf traits as variables indicate that species have different leaf investment strategies, which may imply that there are differences in whole plant performance. We conclude that rainforestation creates substantial variation in leaf traits, which is based on the combination of species with different leaf trait groupings. This can be seen as an important step towards – partly – restoring the functional diversity which characterizes many natural tropical rainforests.     

盐碱地城市林业生态体系建设树种选择及配置的研究

根据盐碱地城市林业的特点 ,分析了盐碱地城市林业生态体系的建设的特点 ,就乔灌藤竹等树种的选择及适用范围和功用进行了讨论 ,并研究了盐碱地城市林业生态体系内的树种配置方式和条件 ,为盐碱地城市林业生态体系的建设进行了有益的探索。     

山西省乡土树种资源现状与发展对策

文章以乡土树种为研究对象,通过全面普查和典型抽样调查,对山西省现有的乡土树种资源进行统计分析。结果显示,山西省乡土树种共有67科155属626种(含变种、亚种等);共有15种国家级保护植物,其中Ⅰ级保护植物2种,Ⅱ级6种,Ⅲ级7种;乡土树种具有水土保持、绿化观赏、荒山造林、防风固沙、药用蜜源等价值。在此基础上,分析了乡土树种保护和利用存在的问题。     

Household and farm attributes affecting adoption of smallholder timber management practices by tree growers in Gunungkidul region,Indonesia

Farm household characteristics determine the success of programs promoting agroforestry systems and practices. This paper reports household and farm factors affecting the adoption of timber management practices by smallholders in the Gunungkidul region, Central Java, Indonesia. The research used three logistic regression analysis models—based on each household and farm characteristic, and a composite of both together—to identify the key factors influencing farmers’ adoption and management decisions, and their relative importance. A sample of 152 farmers who managed their trees primarily for timber production was compared to a sample of 115 farmers with similar socio-economic characteristics who did not. The household condition and composite models identified both on-farm and off-farm gross incomes as significant factors affecting farmers’ decisions to manage timber trees. The models confirmed that farmers with larger farms, and with higher on- and off-farm incomes, were more likely to manage their trees for timber production. These results have implications for extension programs that promote adoption of commercial timber management by smallholders in the case study and similar regions.     

Water consumption of a single tree from the main afforestation tree species in Western Shanxi Province, a loess area

Water is the key factor in vegetation growth in a loess area. Researchers have been keen on the study of tree transpiration for a long time. To provide a scientific basis and practical instruction for vegetation reconstruction and recovery in a loess area, the paper measured and calculated the water consumption of potted Platycladus orientalis, Robinia pseudoacacia, Armeniaca vulgaris and Pyrus hopeiensis separately during the growing season (from Apr. to Nov.). The four were the main afforestation species in a loess area of western Shanxi based on the principle of water balance. Using data on soil water dynamics and the range of available moisture on potted mature trees, the relationship between water supply and consumption and soil moisture availability and deficit state were analyzed. Several conclusions are listed as follows: 1) In the dry year (2002), during the growing season the precipitation was 430.7 mm and the water consumption of potted trees was from 430 to 490 mm. More water consumption and less available water supply occurred, showing a serious water deficiency. In the rainfall-rich year (2003), during the growing season the precipitation was 870.2 mm and the water consumption of potted trees was from 480 to 515 mm. Due to the uneven distribution of rainfall, the water budget balance was slightly affected in May and November. 2) The curves of soil water content of different species had similar annual changes, although the trends were different in the same month, and those of the same tree species in different test plots also had different trends in the same month. 3) Non-available soil water content of Platycladus orientalis, Robinia pseudoacacia, Armeniaca vulgaris and Pyrus hopeiensis was less than 8.0%, 8.4%, 9.2% and 9.7% respectively, which indicated that Pyrus orentalis used water more efficiently than the others. In the dry year (2002), for several months, soil water content of potted trees was lower than its threshold value for non-available soil water content, which could influence the healthy growth of trees. After supplements of precipitation of winter in the year and spring in the next year, soil water content was higher than the lower limit of soil readily available moisture content, which implied that a balance between inter-annual water supply and consumption could be maintained. __________ Translated from Scientia Silvae Sinicae, 2006, 42(9): 18–23 [译自: 林业科学]     

唐代林业职官和护林诏令及造林活动

唐代是我国封建社会经济高度发展的时期,也是自然环境相对较好的一个时期。唐代森林保护与植树造林工作取得了一定成绩,政府既设有林业职官又颁布护林法规典章,还积极组织造林活动。这些都值得当今借鉴。       

衢州市行道树的现状及相关措施

作者对衢州市区行道树作了详细调查,就其所存在的问题提出树种选择、配置、养护管理等具体建议,在地级市中带有普遍意义。       

皖南丘岗地区火炬松人工林伴生树种的选择与配置

简要介绍了试验林地的概况,选择了25个树种进行试验,并按各树种林分平均胸径、平均树高、平均单株材积和平均单位面积蓄积的年平均生长量进行排序。对主要伴生树种的生长发育过程作了说明,指出伴生树种选择应遵循的原则以及混交形式,同时提出把建立林道和营造生态防火林带相结合。为皖南丘岗地区火炬松人工林提出可供选择的主要伴生树种。     

粤西东山森林公园主要造林树种选择与经营模式

以云浮市东山森林公园14种主要造林树种为研究对象,采用套种补植、人工造林2种造林方式和穴状抚育或全面割灌+穴状抚育的抚育方式组合,分析4种经营模式下14种阔叶树种的生长情况.结果表明:采用相同的造林方式时,各树种在全面割灌+穴状抚育的抚育方式下胸径生长较好,但对树高的生长影响不显著;采用相同的抚育方式时,采用套种补植造林的樟树(Cinnamomum camphora)、木荷(Schima superba)、铁冬青(Ilex rotunda)、红苞木(Rhodoleia championii)、秋枫(Bischofia javanica)和米老排(Mytilaria laosensis)胸径和树高生长大于人工造林的,黄槐(Cassia surattensis)、降香黄檀(Dalbergia odorifera)和羊蹄甲(Bauhinia purpurea)人工造林的胸径和树高生长大于套种补植的;云浮市东山森林公园建设的适宜基调树种为米老排、火力楠(Michelia macclurei)、木荷(Schima superba)、樟树、秋枫和降香黄檀,主题树种为铁冬青、黄槐、大叶紫薇(Lagetstroemia speciosa)和美丽异木棉(Ceiba speciosa),以及应用套种补植结合全面割灌+穴状抚育的经营模式.     

湖南省珍贵乡土用材树种研究现状与发展对策

阐述了国内外珍贵乡土用材树种的研究现状,分析了湖南省珍贵乡土用材树种研究与发展利用中存在的问题,提出了今后一个时期内湖南省珍贵乡土用材树种研究与发展的建议及对策。     

Assessment of tree species diversity and its distribution pattern in Pachamalai Reserve Forest,Tamil Nadu

An increased understanding of the importance of forest diversity for ecosystem services such as medicine, wood, climate control, etc., has lead to greater interest in the study of forests. This study aims to analyze the diversity, composition, and distribution pattern of tree species in Pachamalai Reserve Forest in the Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu State. Data were collected in the quadrant method, where 10 × 10 m² plots at different altitudes from 230 to 930 m with 50-m regular intervals were plotted. A total of 73 tree species belonging to 35 families with the density of 1,372 individuals were enumerated from 3 ha. Overall, the most dominant tree species family was Fabaceae (21 species). The highest number in terms of density of tree species was observed for Pongamia pinnata and the most dominant on the basis of basal area was Tamarindus indica. The species inventory was calculated by Shannon-Weiner index (3.916), Simpson index (0.0206), and Margalef index (9.9667). With the increasing altitudinal gradient, the maximum species richness was observed in the middle elevation zone from 580 to 780 m. The results from the study could be helpful for monitoring and sustaining the forest resources, and important in preventing the loss of biodiversity and mitigating climate change.     

苏南地区高效降噪树种及其群落模式筛选

科学配置降噪植物是改善人居环境质量的有效途径.通过对符合生长要求的道路两侧纯林带和混交林带的噪音测试,结果表明,常绿大灌木如夹竹桃、珊瑚树等是降噪效果好的树种,常绿乔木必须和常绿灌木组合才能起到更好的降噪效果,而落叶树种在冬季降噪效果明显减弱甚至消失.通过筛选最后优选出降噪效果好的树种10种,降噪效果好的植物群落模式3个.     

Intensive tree planting facilitates tropical forest biodiversity and biomass accumulation in Kibale National Park, Uganda

The extensive area of degraded tropical land and the calls to conserve forest biodiversity and sequester carbon to offset climate change demonstrate the need to restore forest in the tropics. Deforested land is sometimes replanted with fast-growing trees; however, the consequences of intensive replanting on biomass accumulation or plant and animal diversity are poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to determine how intensive replanting affected tropical forest regeneration and biomass accumulation over ten years. We studied reforested sites in Kibale National Park, Uganda, that were degraded in the 1970s and replanted with five native tree species in 1995. We identified and measured the size of planted versus naturally regenerating trees, and felled and weighed matched trees outside the park to calculate region-specific allometric equations for above-ground tree biomass. The role of shrubs and grasses in facilitating or hindering the establishment of trees was evaluated by correlating observed estimates of percent cover to tree biomass. We found 39 tree species naturally regenerating in the restored area in addition to the five originally planted species. Biomass was much higher for planted (15,675 kg/ha) than naturally regenerated trees (4560 kg/ha), but naturally regenerating tree regrowth was an important element of the landscape. The establishment of tree seedlings initially appeared to be facilitated by shrubs, primarily Acanthus pubescens and the invasive Lantana camara; however, both are expected to hinder tree recruitment in the long-term. Large and small-seeded tree species were found in the replanted area, indicating that bird and mammal dispersers contributed to natural forest restoration. These results demonstrate that intensive replanting can accelerate the natural accumulation of biomass and biodiversity and facilitate the restoration of tropical forest communities. However, the long-term financial costs and ecological benefits of planting and maintaining reforested areas need to be weighed against other potential restoration strategies.