The development of government agency and stakeholder cooperation: A comparative study of two Local Citizens Committees' (LCCs) participation in forest management in Ontario, Canada

The benefits of co-management depend on cooperation between a government agency and stakeholders. However, neither cooperation nor the deliberative processes through which it develops, have been a focus of past co-management research. The paper explores the consensus-building criteria that influence the development of cooperation among and between local stakeholders and a government agency using a comparative case study of two Local Citizens Committees in Ontario, Canada. The study uses cognitive mapping and network analysis techniques to identify key consensus-building criteria, which are grouped into common and idiosyncratic key consensus-building criteria of the two LCCs. All key consensus-building criteria are analysed to generate an explanation of the criteria that influence the development of cooperation. The paper concludes with five lessons regarding the development of cooperation that have implications for consensus-building and co-management theory.     

Analysis of the structure of lignin-carbohydrate complexes by the specific13C tracer method

In the present study the specifically¹³C-enriched lignin precursors of biosynthesis (i.e., coniferin-[side chain–¹³C], coniferin-[side chain-–¹³C] and coniferin-[side chain-–¹³C]) were synthesized and administered exogeneously to ginkgo shoots (Ginkgo biloba L.) to obtain¹³C-enriched lignin-carbohydrate complexes (LCCs). The specifically¹³C-enriched LCCs were isolated from the newly formed xylem of ginkgo shoots administered with the¹³C-enriched precursors and degraded by enzymes. Lignin-rich fractions, so called enzyme-degraded LCCs (EDLCCs), were obtained. By determining their¹³C-NMR spectra, information related to the chemical structure of lignin building units and linkages between phenylpropane units of lignin and carbohydrates were obtained. It was found that these precursors were incorporated in natural lignin successfully. Three lignin-carbohydrates linkages (i.e., ether type, ester type, ketal type) were found at the C -position of the side chain of phenylpropane units in ginkgo LCC. No lignin-carbohydrate bond at the C- or C-position of the lignin side chain was observed in the¹³C-NMR spectra of the¹³C-enriched LCCs. This fact indicates that a specific¹³C tracer technique can be useful in NMR study of the chemical structure of LCCs.Part of this paper was presented at the 5th Pacific Polymer Conference, Kyongju, Korea, October 1997     

中国与非洲林业产能合作的实施突破口

中-非林业产能合作落实“一带一路”倡议的关键,在于找到实施的突破口。我国林业企业“走出去”到非洲实现超越发展的关键也在于找准突破口。找准突破口的关键在于合乎逻辑地确定非洲林业产业内众多细分行业产品发展的重点领域,而确定其重点领域的根本,在于准确把握非洲林业发展的内在规律。文中基于非洲林业资源禀赋现状,回顾全球价值链理论及其在林业上的运用,提出一个新视角构建了“全景式林业产业价值链分析框架”,以此探索原木、锯材、板材和浆纸4类重点细分行业在全球、中国和非洲加工增值过程中的关键结构和发展规律;预测出其中的发展优先序列,并以FAO林产品统计数据对其加以检验。     

Participation and deliberation in Swedish forest governance: The process of initiating a National Forest Program

Over the last two decades intergovernmental organizations have supported the initiation of National Forest Programs (NFPs): forums for joint deliberation by the state, private companies and NGOs that are intended to resolve conflicts over forestry and enhance sustainability. However, NFPs do not always reconcile conflicting perspectives or produce legitimate strategies for sustainable forestry. Thus, further analysis of NFPs' organization and processes is required, including exploration of effective means to address such challenges in early stages. These are key concerns of this paper, focusing on the first process to establish a Swedish NFP. Possibilities for an NFP to constitute a new arena for deliberation and consensus-building, producing forest policy statements and action plans considered legitimate by various stakeholders, are discussed. A number of key challenges are identified through a theoretical framework based on notions regarding the input and output legitimacy of collaborative governance. Analysis of official documentation, records of public hearings and stakeholder comments from the establishment phase in 2013–2015 suggests that the process will continually face a number of challenges, including balancing production and conservation values in the new bio-economy and securing equal stakeholder participation. The paper concludes with some remarks on the future of the NFP process.     

Chemical mechanism of fire retardance of boric acid on wood

It is commonly accepted that the fire retardant mechanism of boric acid is a physical mechanism achieved by the formation of a coating or protective layer on the wood surface at high temperature. Although a char-forming catalytic mechanism has been proposed by some researchers, little direct experimental support has been provided for such a chemical mechanism. In this paper, new experimental results using thermal analysis, cone calorimetry (CONE), and gas chromatography–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (GC–FTIR) analysis are presented and the fire retardant mechanism of boric acid on wood is discussed. Basswood was treated with boric acid, guanylurea phosphate (GUP), and GUP–boric acid. Treated wood was then analyzed by thermogravimetry (TG/DTG), differential thermal analysis (DTA), CONE, and GC–FTIR analysis. Thermogravimetry showed that the weight loss of basswood treated with boric acid was about three times that of untreated or GUP-treated wood at 165°C, a temperature at which GUP is stable. The DTA curve showed that boric acid treated basswood has an exothermal peak at 420°C, indicating the exothermal polymerization reaction of charring. CONE results showed that boric acid and GUP had a considerable synergistic fire retardant effect on wood. The GC–FTIR spectra indicated that compounds generated by boric acid treated wood are different than those generated by untreated wood. We conclude that boric acid catalyzes the dehydration and other oxygen-eliminating reactions of wood at a relatively low temperature (approximately 100–300°C) and may catalyze the isomerization of the newly formed polymeric materials by forming aromatic structures. This contributes partly to the effects of boric acid on promoting the charring and fire retardation of wood. The mechanism of the strong fire retardant synergism between boric acid and GUP is due to the different fire retardant mechanisms of boric acid and GUP and the different activation temperatures of these two chemicals.The Forest Products Laboratory is maintained in cooperation with the University of Wisconsin. This article was written and prepared by U.S. Government employees on official time, and it is therefore in the public domain and not subject to copyright. The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for reader information and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or service.     

Public forest policy making in post-Communist Estonia

This paper presents a case study of forest sector development during the first 10 years of economic transition in Estonia in the period 1991–2000. The analysis is based on an examination of consecutive steps in the evolution of the country's forest sector, allowing speculations and conclusions to be drawn on why some forest policy actions have been more successful than others. Using Douglass C. North's concept of ‘scaffolds’ and the factors that most influence economic progress, the author follows the interplay between the formal and informal institutions in Estonian forestry during this period. The author finds that participatory policy-making procedures, while strongly advocated in the IPF Proposals for Action, do not alone necessarily guarantee desirable policy outcomes. The existing social norms and individual decision-makers’ actions also make significant contributions to the success of forest policy implementation.     

Influence of pulping variables on the properties of Elaeis guineensis soda pulp as evaluated by response surface methodology

Response surface methodology with central composite design was used to investigate the influence of pulping conditions, viz. cooking temperature, time-at-temperature and alkali charge for alkaline pulping of oil palm empty fruit bunch fibres, on the properties of the pulp and paper obtained (screened yield, Kappa number, tensile and tear indices). Quadratic models consisting of the three independent variables were found to accurately describe the pulping of this material with correlation between the actual and predicted values of the response variables having a relatively good degree of R². The delignification of oil palm empty fruit bunch fibre can be achieved with ease using sodium hydroxide as the sole cooking agent to about 30–45% yield with the process greatly enhanced by an increase in temperature. Although, a relatively low temperature (about 160°C) within the limits of pulping time (60–120 min) and of alkali charge between 20 and 30% is generally sufficient.     

Motives and Incentives for Joining Forest Owner Associations in Estonia

The development of private ownership is an important outcome of structural changes for the whole economy as well as for the forestry sector in Estonia. Cooperation between forest owners has been seen as one possibility for increasing the provision of various forest-related benefits and goods. Yet the extent of cooperation between forest owners is still not at a sufficient level, but the reasons have not been extensively studied. The authors’ aim was to find out the key determinants for forest owners to join a forest owner association and to explore how cooperation between owners could be increased. Survey data were used to divide the respondents into two groups according to whether they were members of forest owners associations or not. It was found that one key aspect is the size of the forest property—association members usually manage larger forest areas than non-members. In addition, the members tend to be more active and consistent in forest management activities than non-members. Also there is potential towards cooperation within non-members as their plans for the future are much more targeted. Although there are limits to voluntary cooperation, a huge potential for Estonian private forest owners could be realised by diversifying forest owner association activities and services to meet the different expectations of forest owners.     

Studies on interactions between aluminum compounds and cellulosic fibers in water by means of27Al-NMR

Interactions between pulp fibers and aluminum compounds in pulp suspensions were studied using fibrous cellulose (FC) and fibrous carboxymethylcellulose (FCMC) powders as models of pulp fibers by X-ray fluorescence analysis and²⁷Al nuclear magnetic resonance. When deionized water was used at pH 4–5, water-soluble cationic aluminum species (Al³⁺, aluminum oligomer, and polyaluminum species) were adsorbed on the solid FCMC, forming carboxylic acid aluminum salts by cation exchange. The formation of these nondissociated pulp-COOAl type structures in paper sheets may contribute to some decreases in hydrophilic property. On the other hand, the water-soluble cationic aluminum species had nearly no interactions with hydroxyl groups of solid cellulose in the suspensions at pH 4–5. When tap water was used at pH 5–7, some aluminum components were retained on not only FCMC but also the FC sample. Probably, water-insoluble Al(OH)₃ flocs are formed in the suspensions at pH 5–7 and retained on the FC sample by simple filtration effect. Therefore, two mechanisms of the aluminum retention (i.e., electrostatic interactions and a simple filtration effect) may exist between pulp fibers and aluminum components in the practical papermaking process.This research was presented in part at the 5th annual meeting of the Japan Cellulose Society, Kyoto, July 1998     

Molecular properties of lignin-carbohydrate complexes from beech (Fagus crenata) and pine (Pinus densiflora) woods

Summary Lignin-carbohydrate complexes (LCC) were isolated from pine (Pinus densiflora) and beech (Fagus crenata) milled-wood lignins. The LCCs were treated with enzyme to obtain precipitates (A-P, B-P) and water soluble fractions. The water soluble fraction from beech LCC was subjected to gel filtration to give LCC fragments (B-E-I). In order to protect the phenolic hydroxyl group, B-E-I and B-P were methylated with diazomethane, resulting in nonphenolic LCC fractions B-E-Ip and B-Pp, respectively. On treatment of B-E-I and B-P with sodium hydroxide, a remarkable amount of xylose and a trace of arabinose were detected as monomeric sugars. However, the same alkaline treatment of B-E-Ip and B-Pp gave only a faint trace of xylose. With DDQ treatment of acetylated B-E-I and B-P, monomeric sugars were released in the same amount as those obtained on alkaline treatment. Methylation of the monomeric sugars gave monomethylated xylose. From these results, it was concluded that xylose residues participate in lignin-carbohydrate linkages, and that lignin is linked to xylose at the 0–2 or 0–3 positions through an alkali-labile benzyl ether bond. The molecular-weight distributions of the lignin moieties, measured by HPLC, indicate that the lignin moieties of beech LCC are 100 times larger but less frequent than those of pine LCC. This nonuniformity of distribution of lignin and carbohydrate moieties in hardwood LCC molecules would result in less hydrophobic interaction in aqueous solutions.     

Stock-type patterns of phosphorus uptake,retranslocation, net photosynthesis and morphological development in interior spruce seedlings

One-year-old interior spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss × Picea engelmannii Parry) spring-stock and summer-stock were grown under two phosphorus (P) fertility regimes, with (+P) or without (–P), followed by a simulated winter, and a second growing period under an adequate fertility regime in a controlled environment room. The two stock-types differed in their response to low P availability. For spring-stock, morphological development, phosphorus-use efficiency (PUE) and P specific absorption rate (SAR) were similar between –P and +P seedlings. For summer-stock, –P seedlings compared to +P seedlings had lower (p 0.05) morphological development, but greater PUE and SAR. For both stock-types, P content increased in +P seedlings, remained low in –P seedlings, and P concentration decreased in nursery-needles (i.e., formed in the nursery) of –P seedlings. The difference in stock-type response to low phosphorus availability (–P) was attributed to internal supply of P and it's retranslocation. Assimilation (A) of CO₂ in nursery-needles was similar between –P and +P seedlings for both stock-types. For spring-stock, +P seedlings had greater A in new-needles (i.e., needles formed during the trial) than –P seedlings. It was recommended that the spring-stock be selected over summer-stock for sites low in P availability.     

Biodiversity policies in commercial boreal forests: Optimal design of subsidy and tax combinations

This paper examines the first-best instruments for biodiversity maintenance in commercial boreal forests when landowners behave either in Faustmannian or Hartmanian way. Using an extended Hartman model, we show that biodiversity conservation requires both prolonged rotation age and leaving retention trees. While the former promotes some old growth species, the latter create new structural elements of decaying and dead wood, which can sustain a variety of saprolyxic species. A fully synchronized combination of retention tree subsidy and tax instrument is needed both to lengthen the privately optimal rotation period and to provide an incentive to leave retention trees. Using Finnish data we illustrate empirically the sizes of instruments. When combined with a harvest tax, the retention tree subsidy is 1000 and 750 € in the Faustmann and in the Hartman model, respectively. When used with a timber subsidy or a site value tax, the retention tree subsidy is 1700 €/ha in both models. The harvest tax rate varies over the range 40–65% in the Faustmann model and 20–40% in the Hartman model, while timber subsidy is between 0.5–1.0% and site value tax is about 1.75%.     

Multipurpose conversion management of Scots pine towards mixed oak–birch stands—A long-term simulation approach

The forest growth model 4C was used to investigate how conversion management of a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand towards a mixed oak–birch stand would affect stand structural development – and hence biodiversity and productivity – in the long term. For this purpose the 4C model was parameterised for natural regeneration of light demanding species and extended for management of multi-layered stands. A series of structural indicators was selected to describe key factors of forest biodiversity at the stand scale. Two consecutive aspects of Scots pine conversion were tested: (1) the choice of conversion strategy between thinning and gap creation and (2) the choice of conversion regime in terms of cutting cycle, thinning type and pine tree retention. Three simulated conversion strategies aim at the gradual removal of the pine canopy but differ in the spatial organisation of pine cuttings and hence result in different light conditions for regeneration. Only the directed gap creation strategy was able to maintain and increase birch admixture to the stand and to approach natural stand structural development. Simulation of 12 conversion regimes for the directed gap creation strategy indicated that thinning type (from above or from below), pine tree retention at final felling (50% of the standing volume or none) and cutting cycle (6, 9 or 12 years) all significantly influence stand structural development. These effects were clearest for oak development. Birch occurred in a few mixed clusters, but tended to disappear when longer cutting cycles were used. Based on a multi-criteria analysis we conclude that the optimal conversion regime – in which both stand productivity and biodiversity objectives can be combined – implies thinning from above, pine tree retention, and cutting cycles of 6 years. The conceptual validity of the model as well as the applicability of the results are discussed.     

The influence of the ethanol pumping of wheat straw and of the beating of pulp on the resulting paper sheets

This paper reports on the influence of independent variables in the pulping of wheat straw (viz. cooking temperature and time, and ethanol concentration), and of the number of PFI beating revolutions to which the pulp is subjected, on the yield and Shopper-Riegler index of the pulp, and on the breaking length, stretch, burst index and tear index of the resulting paper sheets. By using a central composite factor design and the BMDP software suite, equations that relate each dependent variable to the different independent variables were obtained that reproduce the experimental results for the dependent variables with errors less than 25% at temperatures, times, ethanol concentrations and numbers of PFI beating revolutions in the ranges 140–180°C, 60–120 min, 40–80% and 0–1750, respectively. Ensuring the optimal Shopper-Riegler index for the pulp (73.18°SR), and also the optimal breaking length (6276 m), stretch (2.57%) and burst index (3.72 kN/g) for the papers sheets, entails using a high temperature (180°C), a large number of PFI beating revolutions (1750) and medium-to-high ethanol concentration and time values; these conditions, however, decrease the tear index for the paper sheets below the optimum level (4.60 mNm²/g). A high temperature and a large number of PFI beating revolutions, in conjunction with a low ethanol concentration (60%) and a short time (60 min), can be used to save solvent and increase the production; the values thus obtained for the dependent variables differ by less than 30% from their optimum levels in the worst case.     

How well does Kirtland's warbler management emulate the effects of natural disturbance on stand structure in Michigan jack pine forests?

Jack pine (Pinus banksiana) forests in parts of northern Lower Michigan have been managed with 30 years of extensive clearcut harvesting followed by planted stand establishment in order to maintain habitat for the endangered Kirtland's warbler (Dendroica kirtlandii). We used two, parallel chronosequences to study how this management has affected the structural development of jack pine stands relative to the historically dominant disturbance regime of stand-replacing wildfire. Each chronosequence consisted of three young stands (age range 3–6 years), three intermediate-aged stands (age range of 12–17 years) and three mature stands (age range of 39–69 years). Average stem density in young plantations (2300 stems/ha) was lower than the average for young, fire-origin stands (11,000) and varied over a much narrower range among stands (1403–2667 for plantations and 1552–24,192 in fire stands). In addition, within-stand patchiness of stem density was also much higher in the wildfire sites for young and intermediate ages. Plantation sites possessed very little dead wood at young ages (averaging 3 snags/ha and 12 m³/ha CWD) compared to young fire-origin stands (averaging 252 snags/ha and 49 m³/ha CWD). In contrast, mature plantations had similar levels of dead wood (averaging 269 snags/ha and 22 m³/ha CWD) as mature fire-origin stands (averaging 557 snags/ha and 12 m³/ha CWD). Differences between the plantation and fire-origin chronosequences were driven mainly by young- and intermediate-aged stands, whereas mature stands were typically quite similar in all structural features. Our results show clearly that forest management aimed at preserving and enhancing the population of a single endangered species results in greatly simplified habitat structure at the stand level, and suggest that this simplification is perpetuated across the landscape as well. Of particular concern are the effects of extensive harvesting and planting on the availability of snags and CWD.     

Structure of small lignin fragments retained in water-soluble polysaccharides extracted from birch MWL isolation residue

To analyze the structural features of lignin in the vicinity of lignin–carbohydrate linkages, water-soluble lignin–carbohydrate complex (LCC) with low lignin content was prepared from residual birch wood meal after the extraction of milled wood lignin (MWL). The molecular weight distribution of lignin in this LCC appeared together with carbohydrate in the relatively high molecular weight region of the gel permeation chromatogram. This result was consistent with our previous results obtained for the same fraction of Japanese cedar (sugi); however, after treatment with polysaccharide-degrading enzyme, the molecular weight distribution of carbohydrate and that of lignin shifted significantly to the lower region. These results demonstrated that molecular size of this LCC is determined by carbohydrates while lignin is present as a minor fragment in this fraction. The syringyl/guaiacyl (S/V) ratio of this LCC was higher than other lignin fractions. Ozonation analysis implied that this LCC has a relatively high number of β-1 structures. It is likely that lignin that exists near lignin–carbohydrate linkages has more endwise-type features than other lignin fractions.This paper was presented in part at the 48th Lignin Symposium, Fukui, Japan, October 2003 and at the 12th International Symposium on Wood and Pulping Chemistry, Madison, USA, June 2003     

尼泊尔竹业发展及其与中国合作展望

尼泊尔是"一带一路"沿线国家中南亚地区的重要国家,也是我国重点援助的国家。尽管尼泊尔森林资源丰富,生物多样性高,但是近年来森林资源下降趋势明显。鉴于竹子在保护森林资源和发展农村经济中的地位日益显著,尼泊尔政府把推动竹藤等非木质林产品开发利用作为林业发展的重要内容和减贫的重要措施。文中对尼泊尔竹子资源培育、加工利用、发展政策及科研进展等进行了综述,提出了我国与尼泊尔开展竹业合作的领域和方式,可为深化中尼两国林业合作和提高我国对外援助水平提供重要的参考信息。     

Financial returns, stability and risk of cacao-plantain-timber agroforestry systems in Central America

Diversification of agroecosystems has long been recognized as a sound strategy to cope with price and crop yield variability, thus increasing farm income stability and lowering financial risk. In this study, the financial returns, stability and risk of six cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) – laurel (Cordia alliodora (R&P) Oken) – plantain (Musa AAB) agroforestry systems, and the corresponding monocultures, were compared. Production and cost data were obtained from an on-going eight-year old experiment. The agroforestry systems included a traditional system and a replacement series between cacao (278, 370, 556, 741 and 833 plants ha^–1) and plantain (833, 741, 556, 370 and 278 plants ha^–1) with a constant laurel population (timber tree; 69 trees ha^–1). An ex-post analysis was conducted using experimental and secondary data to build a simulation model over a 12-year period under different price assumptions. The probability distribution functions for the three commodity prices were modeled and simulated through time, accounting for their possible autocorrelation and non-normality. The expected net incomes from the agroforestry systems were considerably higher than from monocultures. The agroforestry systems were also less risky. Agroforestry systems with proportionally more cacao than plantain were less risky, but also less stable. The timber component (C. alliodora) was a key factor in reducing farmer's financial risks. Methodologically, the study illustrates a technique to evaluate both expected returns and the corresponding financial risks to obtain a complete, comparable profile of alternative systems. It shows the need to allow for the possibility of non-normality in the statistical distributions of the variables entering a financial risk and return analysis.     

Evaluation of pulp and paper making characteristics of certain fast growing plants

Summary Four species of fast growing annual plant viz.Hibiscus sabdariffa, Crotalaria juncea, Tephrosia candida andHibiscus cannabinus and a variety of reed, Neyraudia reynaudiana were evaluated in the laboratory for their pulp and paper making properties. Data on proximate chemical analysis of raw materials, unbleached and bleached pulp properties, morphological properties of fibres and physical strength properties of paper sheets were evaluated. The unbleached pulp yields were 44.90–53.20% with all the five plant materials, while bleached pulp yields varied from 39.80–50.60%. The average fibre lengths and diameters of the unbleached pulp obtained from the five plant species were within the range of 0.75 mm–2.15 mm and 20–22 pun respectively. Paper hand sheets, made with bleached pulps (45° SR) obtained from the five plant species, gave burst indices 2.75–3.92 kPa m²/g, tear indices 3.73–9.61 m N m²/g and tensile indices 37.27–47.81 N mg^–1, indicating adequate strength properties for writing and printing type of paper.The authors thank Director, Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR), Jorhat, India, for his kind permission to publish this paper. The authors also wish to thank B. N. Tosh, JPF for his assistance.     

The ecological sustainability of tropical forest management: evaluation of the national forest management standards of Costa Rica and Nicaragua, with emphasis on the need for adaptive management

From a conceptual point of view, national forest management standards in Latin American countries have progressed significantly in recent years. Examples include the Costa Rican Standards and Procedures for Sustainable Forest Management and Certification, developed by the National Commission for Forest Certification and in Nicaragua, the National Institute of Forestry proposal of principles, criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. In line with general approaches worldwide, these national standards primarily focus on the fulfillment of sound forest practice. There is comparatively little emphasis on the assessment of management outcomes or changes in key components of the eco- and social-systems that result from management impacts. Essentially, there is little emphasis on adaptive management, though arguments that management cannot be sustainable if it is not adaptive are persuasive. This study sought to contribute to the development of standards that include elements for adaptive management that define, communicate and evaluate sustainable forest management in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Elements from the national standards and the CIFOR generic C&I template (predominantly focused on forest management outcomes) were used as a starting point. The basic research process consisted of three phases of evaluation (in-office, desk and field). The evaluations were carried out by multidisciplinary, international groups of experts in forest ecology, management and policy. This study demonstrated the value of forums and workshops that facilitate exchange between forest scientists and policymakers; the innovation and application of a practical, applicable and scientifically based methodology for developing national level C&I; and acceptance of this methodology by key players in the fields of forest management and policy. These experiences and the resulting proposals of C&I for the evaluation of ecologically sustainable forest management are expected to be used as points of reference for future development of forest policy in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, and to contribute to the overall understanding of C&I development processes in the region.