Dynamics of ammonia excretion in juvenile common tench, Tinca tinca (L.), during intensive rearing under controlled conditions

This paper presents the first data on ammonia excretion by fed and starved juvenile common tench. The aim of the study was to determine the amount of ammonia excretion by juvenile common tench Tinca tinca (L.), fed with a commercial feed under intensive rearing conditions. Rearing was conducted for a period of 4 weeks at a water temperature of 27 °C. On the test day, the amounts of ammonia excreted by starved fish (over 12 h: control group) and fish fed with a morning feed dose (3 % of biomass: experimental group) were determined at 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 h after feeding. Ammonia excretion measurements were taken in 7-day intervals. Despite the increased growth rate in successive weeks of experiment, the amount of ammonia excreted by the fish was always at a similar level within the control (maximum 0.26 mg g^?1) and the experimental group (maximum 0.39 mg g^?1). This paper presents for the first time reliable amount of ammonia excreted by fed and starved juvenile common tench. The obtained results may also increase the effectiveness of intensive rearing procedures (taking into account stocking density and feeding regime) and allow to design the most effective biofiltration capacity of recirculating aquaculture systems for the commercial production of this species.     

中国沿海河口地区鳗苗耐饥力的研究

采自韩江口、闽江口、钱塘江口、长江口外和鸭绿江口鳗苗耐饥力的研究结果表明，淡水组和半咸水组中的鳗苗，饥饿存活时间最长，１００％死亡的平均时间分别为８１．３—１３１天、３９２６２—５６７１２度时积和８７—１６１．３天、４５０３４—７５０９７度时积；平均减重百分比为６５．７—８１．１％和６１．４—７４．５％。方差分析和多重比较显示，淡水组平均存活的度时积，韩江与闽江间无显著差异；钱塘江、长江、鸭绿江间亦无差异；而韩江与钱塘江、鸭绿江间有显著差异（Ｐ＜０．０５）；韩江与长江有极显著差异（Ｐ＜０．０１）。除长江外，其余４条江口样品平均存活度时积，由南向北递减。蒸馏水组存活的时间最短，可能主要是渗透压调节机能障碍造成的；饥饿不是主要致死原因。     

中华鲟幼鱼循环饥饿后的补偿生长和体成分变化

研究中华鲟(Acipenser sinensis)幼鱼循环饥饿后的补偿生长和体成分变化。实验设4个循环饥饿组(T1:饥饿1 d,饱食投喂3 d;T2:连续饥饿2 d,饱食投喂4 d;T3:连续饥饿4 d,饱食投喂6 d;T4:连续饥饿7 d,饱食投喂8 d)和1个对照组(T0:每天饱食投喂)。结果显示:在水温21.5～25.4℃条件下,T1组末重和特定生长率均超过对照组,表现为超补偿生长;T2组末重和特定生长率均接近对照组,表现为完全补偿生长,T1、T2组食物转化率均显著高于对照组;T3、T4组实际摄食水平均明显高于对照组,但表现为不能补偿生长。4个循环饥饿组幼鱼肝体比及脏体比均显著高于对照组。各组肌肉蛋白质和脂肪含量下降,同时水分和灰分含量上升;从饥饿2 d组开始,蛋白质和脂肪含量显著低于对照组,且蛋白质含量比脂肪含量下降幅度更大。     

Influence of starvation, body size and temperature on ammonia excretion in the marine bivalve Tapes decussatus (L.)

Abstract. Ammonia excretion rate of the marine bivalve Tapes decussatus (L.) varied with body weight, temperature and starvation. There was a steady state in the excretion rates, in which these rates neither increased nor decreased during the first 6 days of starvation. The highest rates of ammonia excreted during the steady state (before decline to lower level) depended on the temperature (715 ± 86 and 395 ± 55 μg NH₄.N/clam/h × 10⁻²) at 28°C and 20°C, respectively. At 16°C, the steady state extended from 6h to 18d starvation. Ammonia excretion rates were higher for starved clams than for fed clams at all sizes, e.g. clams of 0·07 g dry flesh weight (28 ± 9 and 13 ± 5 μg NH₄.N/clam/h × 10⁻² respectively) at 16°C but not at 20°C and 28°C. At each temperature, weight-specific ammonia excretion rates were related to dry flesh weight of starved clams but were not related to fed ones.     

基于氨氮平衡的水产养殖换水率计算方法研究

为进一步掌握海水养殖鱼类氮排泄的规律,准确计算养殖所需换水率(量),为深远海大型养殖平台养殖模式与系统设计提供基础数据和技术支撑。研究了斑石鲷(Oplegnathus punctatus)在不同投饲频率条件下的排氨情况,分析了维持氨氮平衡所需换水率的优化计算方法,并通过流水实验进行验证。结果显示,斑石鲷在空腹、日投喂1、2、3次等4种条件下,水体氨氮质量浓度随时间变化基本呈线性增长趋势,排氨率平均值分别为(6.23±6.71)、(18.16±11.90)、(21.69±17.52)和(17.98±12.93)mg/(kg·h)。根据物质平衡原理,提出基于氨氮平衡的换水量计算方法。以该计算方法获得换水率分别为0.18、0.55、0.66和0.55次/h。验证实验中,设计养殖密度13.4 kg/m~3,计算所需换水率为1.09次/h(换水量0.147 m~3/h)。在该条件下的流水养殖实验结果表明,氨氮能够稳定维持在设计要求范围内。     

Cytochrome P-450-dependent metabolism in isolated liver cells from fed and starved rainbow trout,Salmo gairdneri

The cytochrome P-450 content in liver cells from rainbow trout was not affected by starvation for 12 weeks whereas the rate of cytochrome P-450-dependent deethylation of 7-ethoxycoumarin in liver cells from 6 or 12 weeks starved fish was 60% of the rate in fed fish. Treatment of fish with -naphthoflavone increased the 7-ethoxycoumarin metabolism several-fold in both starved and fed fish.Optimal cytochrome P-450 monooxygenation in liver cells from fed or starved fish was not affected by addition of glucose or 2-bromooctanoate, an inhibitor of fatty acid -oxidation which is the main source of metabolic fuel in trout liver. The cellular content of NADPH, an obligatory cofactor for cytochrome P-450 monooxygenation, was not affected by addition of substrate to cytochrome P-450, inhibition of fatty acid -oxidation or inhibition of the oxidative phosphorylation. This indicates a great capacity of rainbow trout liver cells to retain high NADPH/NADP⁺ ratios. These results suggest that the cytochrome P-450 mediated metabolism of xenobiotics in liver cells from fed or starved trout is not limited by the availability of reducing equivalents.     

Compensatory Growth of Olive Flounder,Paralichthys olivaceus,Fed the Extruded Pellet with Different Feeding Regimes

This study was performed to determine compensatory growth of juvenile olive flounder fed the extruded pellet (EP) with different feeding regimes. Seven treatments with triplicates of different feeding regimes were prepared; α fish was daily fed for 6 d a week throughout 8 wk (8WF); α fish was starved for 1 wk and then fed for 3 wk twice [(1WS + 3WF) × 2]; β fish was starved for 2 wk and then fed for 6 wk (2WS + 6WF); χ fish was starved for 5 d and then fed for 9 d four times [(5DS + 9DF) × 4]; δ fish was starved for 10 d and then fed for 18 d twice [(10DS + 18DF) × 2]; δ fish was starved for 2 d, fed for 5 d, starved for 3 d, and then fed for 4 d four times [(2DS + 5DF + 3DS + 4DF) × 4]; and φ fish was starved for 4 d, fed for 10 d, starved for 6 d, and then fed for 8 d twice [(4DS + 10DF + 6DS + 8DF) × 2], respectively. Total feeding day was all same, 36 d except for control group (48 d). Weight gain of flounder in the 8WF treatment was higher than that of fish in other treatments. And weight gain of flounder in the 2WS + 6WF treatment was higher than that of fish in the (5DS + 9DF) × 4 and (4DS + 10DF + 6DS + 8DF) × 2 treatments. Feed consumption of flounder in the 8WF treatment was higher than that of fish experienced feed deprivation. Feed efficiency ratio (FER), protein efficiency ratio (PER), and protein retention (PR) were not significantly different among treatments. Chemical composition of the whole body of fish with and without liver, except for moisture content of liver, was not different among treatments. T₃ level of fish in the 8WF and 2WS + 6WF treatments was higher than that of fish in the (5DS + 9DF) × 4 treatment. It can be concluded that juvenile olive flounder achieved better compensatory growth at 6‐wk refeeding after 2‐wk feed deprivation compared with that of fish with different feeding regimes. And T₃ level of fish seemed to partially play an important role in achieving compensatory growth.     

Effect of nutritional status and sampling intensity on recovery after dorsal aorta cannulation in free-swimming Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)

Recovery from implantation of a cannula in the dorsal aorta (DA) of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) was studied in relation to nutritional status and sampling intensity. The incentive for the study was the inconsistency between published reports and our own experience of recovery and longevity of fish exposed to this protocol. In two studies using starved fish, blood (0.3 ml) was sampled 0, 1 and 24 h after DA-cannulation, and thereafter at 48 and 72 h and thereafter once weekly for four weeks. In a third study using fed fish, four consecutive samples (0, 3, 6 and 12 h after a meal) were obtained twice a week over a four-week period. All fish displayed a sharp increase in pCO₂ and haematocrit (Hct) during surgery, followed by a marked raise in cortisol, glucose, sodium and potassium (1 h). pCO₂, pH and Hct approached baseline levels as early as the 1 h post-surgery sample, while this was not the case for cortisol and electrolytes before the 24 h post-surgery sample. Glucose did not display any significant changes post surgery. From then on, all variables displayed minor but non-significant (P > 0.05) changes indicating a steady state close to baseline values for unstressed fish. This pattern was independent of sampling procedure, i.e. repeated single or multiple samples and thus volume of blood removed. Nutritional status (fed vs. starved) did not affect post-surgical recovery pattern. Only K⁺ and Hct displayed consistent and significant post-prandial patterns. We found marked differences between baseline level of cannulated fish and uncannulated control fish, in pH, K⁺ and Hct indicating that cannulation may be the preferred method to obtain representative resting values in fish.     

冬季低水温鳜短期饥饿和摄食的生理状态比较

为比较鳜短期饥饿与摄食的生理状态,实验以我国鳜主产区广东省的冬季水温为参照,在(13±1)°C的水温条件下,选取体质量为(84.13±0.14) g的鳜90尾,分为饥饿组(饥饿15 d)和摄食组(摄食15 d),实验结束后测定各项理化指标。结果显示：(1)摄食组鳜的体质量、肝糖原、全鱼与肌肉的粗蛋白、粗脂肪含量均显著高于饥饿组,摄食组增重7.54%,而饥饿组减重8.39%。(2)摄食组鳜血浆谷丙转氨酶和谷草转氨酶活性显著低于饥饿组,但甘油三酯含量显著高于饥饿组,各类血细胞数量与血糖水平则无明显差异。(3)摄食组鳜的消化酶活性显著高于饥饿组,肠道组织结构发育更好。(4)摄食组鳜肝脏抗氧化能力显著高于饥饿组,且饥饿组部分肝细胞有明显的结构损伤,脂滴数量显著少于摄食组。(5)摄食组鳜的血浆溶菌酶活性和血浆、脾脏、肾脏免疫球蛋白M含量显著高于饥饿组。(6)摄食组与饥饿组鳜背肌氨基酸组成无显著差异。但脂肪酸组成有显著差异,摄食组鳜背肌饱和脂肪酸与单不饱和脂肪酸总量显著低于饥饿组,而多不饱和脂肪酸与高不饱和脂肪酸总量显著高于饥饿组。研究表明,在本实验条件下,摄食组增重而饥饿组减重,两种处理增重量差...     

Ammonia nitrogen excretion in Mandarin Fish (Siniperca chuatsi) and Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) fed practical diets: the effects of water temperature

To understand the actual production of fish culture about the utilization of dietary protein and excreta impact on the environment between mandarin fish (Siniperca chuatsi) and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus), the study to investigate the effect of temperatures (19 ± 0.5°C, 24 ± 0.5°C and 29 ± 0.5°C) on ammonia‐N excretion in mandarin fish and grass carp under fed and fasted states was conducted. These two species were fed a practical diet containing 325.2 g kg^?1 crude protein at 3% body weight per day. The ammonia‐N excretion rate was significantly increased when temperature increased from 19 to 29°C, and a linear relationship between ammonia‐N excretion rate and temperature. The maximum ammonia‐N excretion levels of mandarin fish and grass carp were observed at 4–8 h and 2–4 h after feeding, respectively, and the minimum values for both species were observed at 24 h after feeding. Under the feeding condition, mandarin fish had a lower ammonia‐N excretion level compared to grass carp at 24°C and 29°C. The average amount of ammonia‐N excreted by mandarin fish at 24 h is significantly higher than grass carp under fasting conditions, except 19 ± 0.5°C. These results indicated that mandarin fish might make better use of protein at higher temperature than grass carp when fed practical diets in commercial production. These results of this study suggested that mandarin fish had a lower ammonia‐N excretion level compared with grass carp, making a less contribution to environmental loading in an intensive fish culture.     

The impact of varying feeding regimes on oxygen consumption and excretion of carbon dioxide and nitrogen in post-smolt Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L.

Oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide excretion and nitrogen excretion from 2 kg Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. were studied at land-based outdoor tanks, throughout a 10 day period. Fish were fed six feed rations (0 [fasting fish], 0.15, 0.30, 0.45, 0.60 and 0.75% BW day^-1) of commercially extruded dry feed at two provision regimes: between 07.00-09.00 h and 19.00–21.00 h (periodic feeding); and between 07.00-21.00 h (continuous feeding). Fish were acclimatized to the feeding regime for 5 days prior to the start of the experiment. From days 5 to 10 of the study, oxygen consumption was measured automatically every 15 min. During day 10, carbon dioxide excretion, ammonia and urea excretion were measured hourly throughout a 24 h period. During the experiment, the water temperature and salinity were 8.5C and 33.5 ppt, respectively. Significant linear relationships between feed ration and metabolic rates were evident. Increased feed ration influenced oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide excretion, ammonia and urea excretion, ammonia quotient and the respiration quotient, proportionally. The two feed provision regimes caused the establishment of different daily rhythms in metabolic excretion. Only small differences in total daily excretion were however recorded for each feed ration. Ammonia and respiratory quotient results clearly showed that fish became more dependent on fat oxidation as an energy source, when feed was restricted.     

Starvation before slaughtering as a tool to keep freshness attributes in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata)

Instrumental quality parameters related to freshness were evaluated for gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) after different storage periods on ice (2, 4, 7 and 11 days of storage) for one, four and eight days of pre-slaughter starvation. The study was carried out on 360 gilthead sea bream from five different groups reared on a commercial fish farm. Starvation period had a significant effect on fish texture: the force necessary to compress 4 mm of flesh after two days ice storage in 1 day starved fish (16.50 ± 0.59 Newtons) was less than that for four day (18.98 ± 0.63 Newtons) and eight day starved fish (20.43 ± 1.12 Newtons). Significant differences in flesh puncture and flesh compression were not detected, although these values did increase with increasing starvation period. A significant increase in pH and myofibrilar protein solubility was also detected for fish starved for one day.     

Effects of starvation and feeding on canthaxanthin depletion in the muscle of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri Rich.)

An experiment was conducted to examine carotenoid depletion in the muscle of rainbow trout. After 4 weeks of ingestion of canthaxanthin, fish were divided into two groups: the first was fed the same diet but without the canthaxanthin, the second was starved. Lipid and canthaxanthin levels in epaxial muscle were followed for 38 days. The lipid content increased (× 1.84) in fed fish and remained stable in those which were starved. Fed fish lost more canthaxanthin than starved fish. The ratio of the relative weight gain of canthaxanthin to that of the lipids was higher in starved than in fed fish (0.91 and 0.69 respectively). It is concluded that an internal redistribution of canthaxanthin takes place in the absence of an intake of the pigment. These results also show that the muscle of rainbow trout has a high storage capacity.     

Growth performance and plasma metabolites in juvenile Siberian sturgeon <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acipenser baerii</Emphasis> (Brandt, 1869) subjected to various feeding strategies at different sizes

The effect of various feeding strategies was evaluated on growth performance and biochemical parameters in two sizes of Siberian sturgeon (465.75?±?11.18 and 250.40?±?12 g) during 45 days. Fish were distributed into six experimental treatments including large fish with satiation feeding (LA), small fish with satiation feeding (SA), large fish with 50% satiation feeding (LR), small fish with 50% satiation feeding (SR), large starved fish (LS), and small starved fish (SS). Differences in final weight between LA and LR treatments were not noticeable, whereas SA and SR treatments showed significant differences. Growth parameters were more affected in small fish. In condition factor and weight gain in starved treatments, a considerable reduction occurred by interaction between feeding strategies and fish size, so the lowest values were obtained in SS treatment. Glucose levels significantly decreased in small fish during the starvation. Interaction between feeding strategy and fish size indicated the highest and lowest albumin level in SA and SS treatment, respectively. Cholesterol, triglyceride, total protein, and globulin showed no significant differences. It can be deduced that small fish are more sensitive to starvation than the large fish. Since glucose and albumin showed significant decrease in starved small fish, these parameters can help to monitor nutritional status and feeding practices. It was indicated that in both sizes of Siberian sturgeon, feeding 50% satiation reduced the food cost without negative impact on physiological condition, and it can be considered as an appropriate strategy to face unfavorable circumstances.     

Optimal starvation time before blood sampling to get baseline data on several blood biochemical parameters in Amur sturgeon,Acipenser schrenckii

This study tested the hypothesis that different starvation time for fish before blood sampling can influence the result of plasma biochemical analysis. Glucose (GLU), total cholesterol (CHOL), triglyceride (TGL) and total protein (TP) in the plasma of juvenile Amur sturgeon (Acipenser schrenckii) were measured after different starvation duration (0, 0.5, 1, 2 and 3 days). Starvation time had a significant influence on plasma GLU, CHOL, TGL and TP concentrations (P < 0.05). Plasma GLU and TP concentrations were unpredictably variable with duration of starvation. Plasma TGL and CHOL concentrations after 3 days starvation were significantly higher than that in fish starved for 0, 0.5, or 1 day, and no significant difference was found among fish starved for 0, 0.5, or 1 day. In order to get baseline value for these blood parameters, juvenile Amur sturgeon should be starved for 1 day.     

Nitrogen and phosphorus digestibility and excretion of different-sized groups of milkfish (Chanos chanos Forsskal) fed formulated and natural food-based diets

This study determined the digestibility of nitrogen and phosphorus, and the excretion rate of different‐sized groups of milkfish fed a commercial diet, a SEAFDEC formulated diet or lab‐lab (natural food‐based diet). Fish (31.2–263.0 g) were stocked in 12 units of 300‐L fibreglass tanks filled with aerated seawater. The postprandial total ammonia‐nitrogen (TAN) and phosphate (PO₄‐P) excretion of fish were estimated from changes in TAN and PO₄‐P concentrations in water for 24 h. Digestibility was determined from the nitrogen, phosphorus and Cr₂O₃ content of the diets, and pooled faeces after the fish had been fed diets marked with chromic oxide. TAN excretion rate (mg TAN kg^?1 fish day^?1) was significantly lowest (P < 0.05) in medium to very big fish fed the lab‐lab diet (60.8–124.4) and highest in small and medium fish fed the SEAFDEC diet (333.3–331.6) and small fish fed the commercial diet (280.1). Regardless of size, fish fed lab‐lab excreted (mg PO₄‐P kg^?1 fish day^?1) significantly lower PO₄‐P (36.2) but did not differ with fish fed the commercial diet (64.8). Excretion rates decreased exponentially as fish weight increased but positively increased with feed ration. Excretion pattern of milkfish revealed two peaks: the first peak occurred 6 h after feeding and the second peak at 18 h for TAN and 21 h for PO₄‐P, coinciding with the start of the daylight hours. TAN and PO₄‐P excretion accounted for 20.5–34.6% of total N consumed and 18.7–42.6% of P consumed respectively. Approximately 27.9–42.5% of N consumed and 47.2–58.5% of P consumed were lost as faeces. Total nutrient losses were lower using the lab‐lab diet (0.31 g N and 0.14 g P kg^?1 fish) compared with the formulated diets (0.47–0.48 g N and 0.17–0.19 g P kg^?1 fish); the losses decreased per kg of fish as fish size increased. Results suggest that the diet and size of fish influence wastage of N and P to the environment with greater losses in small fish and when artificial diets are used. Such measurements will provide valuable information for the preparation of N and P budgets for milkfish in grow‐out systems.     

Combined Effects of Cycled Starvation and Feeding Frequency on Growth and Oxygen Consumption of Gilthead Sea Bream,Sparus aurata

Triplicate groups of gilthead sea bream, Sparus aurata (10.4 g), were distributed among 27 tanks (12 fish per tank) and reared in flow‐through seawater. A factorial experiment (3 × 3) was designed to include a continuously fed control group and two cycled starvation groups: 1 + 3 (starved 1 d, fed 3 d), 1 + 5 (starved 1 d, fed 5 d). Each of the feeding groups was subjected to one of three feeding frequencies (2, 4, and 6 times per day) over the 60‐d experiment duration. The average final weight of fish in 1 + 3 and 1 + 5 groups were significantly lower than that of the control group. Partial compensation was observed in the starved groups subjected to any of the three feeding frequencies. Regardless of the feeding frequency, control fish consumed less feed than the starved groups. The highest body protein content was found in the control group. The rate of oxygen consumption significantly increased 30 min after the feeding and the magnitude of the effect increased with the feeding frequency. These results suggest that the present cycling starvation schedules did not invoke a full compensation in gilthead sea bream.     

Effect of dietary nutrient composition on compensatory growth of juvenile olive flounder Paralichthys olivaceus using different feeding regimes

Effect of dietary nutrient composition on compensatory growth of juvenile olive flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus using different feeding regimes was determined. Six treatments were prepared in triplicate: fish were daily hand‐fed with the control (C) diet twice a day, 7 days a week, for 8 weeks (8WF‐C); fish were starved for 1 week, and then fed with the C and high protein and lipid (HPL) diets twice a day, 7 days a week, for 7 weeks, referred to as 7WF‐C and 7WF‐HPL, respectively; and fish were starved for 2 weeks, and then fed with the C, HPL and HPL with supplementation of the mixture of amino acids (HPLA) diets twice a day, 7 days a week, for 6 weeks, referred to as 6WF‐C, 6WF‐HPL and 6WF‐HPLA, respectively. Growth of fish in 7WF‐HPL treatment was greater than that of fish in any other treatments. Feed efficiency of fish in 7WF‐HPL, 6WF‐HPL and 6WF‐HPLA treatments was higher than that of fish in 8WF‐C, 7WF‐C and 6WF‐C treatments. The high protein and lipid diet effectively improved compensatory growth of fish. However, supplementation of the mixture of amino acids into the high protein and lipid diet did not improve compensatory growth of fish further.