Effect of intensity and frequency of defoliation on aerial growth and carbohydrate reserve levels in Acacia karroo plants

Acacia karroo trees were defoliated by goats at two intensities and four frequencies; 2, 4, 8 and 12‐weekly. Leaf accumulation and carbohydrate reserve levels were compared to a non‐defoliated control, and to plants (defoliation controls) which were defoliated for the first time that season each time a frequency treatment was defoliated. These plants are activated by defoliation in such a manner that successive defoliations can result in this activation being additive. There is clearly a defoliation level below which they are not activated. Activation appears to be negated to a degree by defoliations at 2 and 4‐weekly frequencies, relative to the 8‐weekly defoliation frequency. The 12‐weekly frequency at heavy defoliation produced less than the same defoliation at 8‐weekly frequency. The 2‐weekly frequency treatments produced as much leaf as the 4 and 12‐weekly defoliations at the same defoliation intensity. The more frequently plants were defoliated, the more carbohydrate reserves dropped. However, plants adjusted to cope with very frequent defoliations. There was no connection between leaf accumulation and carbohydrate reserve levels following the different frequencies and intensities of defoliation.     

Water utilization patterns around isolated Acacia karroo trees in the False Thornveld of the eastern Cape

The effect of various vegetation treatments on two soil moisture regimes (i.e. the proportion of the experimental period where the soil had sufficient water for: (a) growth, and (b) to keep the plants turgid in the vicinity of experimentally isolated A. karroo trees) was monitored over a two‐year period. Removal of all vegetation had the greatest effect on soil moisture, increasing the moisture regime by around 200%. Grass removal had the next most significant effect, increasing moisture regimes within 9 m of the tree by around 100%. Removal of the tree had the smallest significant effect, increasing the moisture regime by less than 20%. There was no significant difference in the moisture regime surrounding trees with heights ranging between 1,4 m and 2,5 m, or where various combinations of tree and/or grass defoliations were implemented. We conclude that water supply to the trees is enhanced when soil water extraction is reduced (e.g. during winter or when the sward is harmed) and argue that this may be a mechanism of accelerating bush encroachment in semi‐arid savannas.     

Patterns of selection of Acacia karroo by goats and changes in tannin levels and in vitro digestibility following defoliation

Patterns of browse selection by Boer goats in a representative Acacia karroo community in the eastern Cape were studied. The rate of intake of browse was positively related to the leaf mass per unit length of the shoot. The ease of harvesting leaf material, as determined by the height off the ground, modified the rate of intake. Generally, following browsing, tannin levels increased significantly and in vitro digestibility decreased significantly. These changes in tannin content and digestibility differed in magnitude according to the plant size and age of the shoot and leaf. Generally, the leaf and shoot intake was negatively related to tannin content and positively related to digestibility, thus influencing patterns of selection for different plant parts and size classes of A. karroo. However, some of the results are contradictory.     

Simulating browse production and response of Acacia karroo to defoliation II. Evaluation of browse management systems and strategies

To assess management implications, a model was used to simulate the response of Acacia karroo to a wide range of different climatic patterns and defoliation regimes. The model predicts that if poor growing conditions initiate growth later in spring than normal, total season growth and harvest is significantly reduced. In comparison, cooler overall temperatures throughout the season reduce growth less markedly. Results indicate that increasing the number of camps in a pastoral system increases the total amount of A. karroo that can be harvested. The model illustrates, in general terms, the limits and constraints of increasing the number of camps, varying the length of stay in each and varying the length of the rest period before the next occupation at different stocking rates. It also indicates the increases in A. karroo harvests that can be expected with different management strategies. The most important prediction of the model was the large increase in productivity that could be expected by sparing or very light use early in the growing season. Even if it is possible to reduce stock in times of drought, this was shown to be of very little benefit.     

The influence of an Acacia karroo tree on grass production in its vicinity

Abstract

The investigation was concerned with the impact of an Acacia karroo tree on the productivity of the surrounding herbaceous layer.

It was established that a consistent pattern of grass production occurs around isolated A. karroo trees. This is characterized by high yields under and immediately south of the tree canopy, and low yields immediately to the north of the canopy. The former is attributed to favourable influences by the tree (e.g. shade and tree leaf litter), whereas the latter is probably a result of reduced water input associated with physical redistribution of rainfall by the tree and competition from the tree for soil water.

It is argued that the net effect of the favourable or unfavourable influences of A. karroo on grass production is dependent on tree density. This explains why grass production is greater where there are a few A. karoo trees than where there are no trees and why grass production declines as tree density increases beyond a critical level.     

Growth patterns and annual growth cycle of Acacia karroo hayne in relation to water stress

Abstract

The use and replenishment of carbohydrate reserves in Acacia karroo is closely related to the successive events of the annual growth cycle. Acacia karroo displayed the rapid and substantial decline in non‐structural carbohydrates typical of deciduous woody species. In addition, each time shoot, leaf or reproductive organs grew rapidly, reserves declined.

Replenishment begins soon thereafter when the recently emerged leaves are still very small. Water stress does not change the pattern of use and replenishment. However, increasing water stress does slow replenishment down. This probably delays the beginning of the next growth event as well as the growth of organs already initiated.     

Spatial patterns of encroaching shrub species under different grazing regimes in a semi-arid savanna,eastern Karoo,South Africa

Woody plant encroachment is increasing in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. We investigated the structure and fine-scale spatial pattern of encroaching species and how these patterns vary with different grazing regimes in semi-arid regions. In this study, we investigated how four encroaching shrub species (Searsia erosa, S. burchellii, Diospyros lycioides and Eriocephalus ericoides) in Middelburg (Eastern Cape, South Africa) coexist and partition space under different grazing regimes (viz. continuous rest, and continuous, summer and winter grazing). We used point-pattern analysis to assess the spatial ecology of these species. We also used an index of integration (mingling index), where low values indicate that they are surrounded by conspecifics and high values indicate that they are surrounded by heterospecifics. The three shrub species were highly mingled except in the winter-grazing plot, where S. burchellii and D. lycioides clustered. We found that the shrub species were generally aggregated in most of the grazing plots. These findings indicate that (1) at a fine spatial scale, grazing in the wet season promotes shrub encroachment, and (2) there is a tendency to aggregation among encroaching shrub species in the grazing plots.     

Growth patterns and annual growth cycle of Acacia karroo Hayne in relation to water stress I. Leaf and shoot growth

Abstract

A field study was conducted to describe the growth patterns of A. karroo at different levels of water stress in different edaphic situations.

Shoots are heterophyllous and are formed by free growth. The degree of development of a shoot, relative to others in the canopy, is governed by branch and position in the canopy. At least six phenological phases were identified in the annual growth cycle.

The pattern of growth and the phenological cycle are not changed by water stress. Initiation, emergence and development of shoots and leaves are governed by how favourable environmental conditions are. If there is little shoot growth early in the season, these plants can partially compensate by producing more leaf per unit of shoot if environmental conditions improve.

Leaf and shoot growth at the beginning of the season took place only if there was sufficient moisture available, and if the minimum temperature had risen above a threshold amount. Where there was insufficient soil moisture, no growth was observed before rains had fallen. The growth strategy of A. karroo differs markedly from that of broadleaved African savanna tree species. Growth in A. karroo is dominated by current growing conditions, rather than those of the previous season. They are able to make opportunistic growth at any time.

Soil depth had a marked influence on plant growth, presumably due to a larger available nutrient and moisture pool.     

Partitioning of Nutrient and Trace Elements in Feed among Milk,Faeces and Urine by Lactating Dairy Cows

Abstract

The distribution of ticks is increasing in many parts of the world, including Norway. It has been suggested that this is linked to climate change while the role of different land use practices appears less clear. Here, we investigate the variation in abundance of questing ticks on the west coast of Norway and relate this to the presence of sheep, a tick host that also modifies the landscape through grazing. We found that questing tick abundance was higher in areas without sheep, suggesting that sheep alter vegetation in turn reducing tick survival. However, we cannot exclude that other mechanisms may also lead to reduced abundance of questing ticks; sheep may negatively affect the local density of red deer which is an important alternative host. In any case, sheep farming may contribute to limiting the local abundance of questing ticks and related diseases.     

Effect of intensity of defoliation by goats at different phenophases on leaf and shoot growth of acacia karroo hayne

Abstract

Defoliation by goats (leaves plus shoots) during the growing phenophases resulted in a considerable stimulation of leaf and shoot growth relative to non‐defoliated plants. The response differed considerably depending on the intensity and phenophase of defoliation. Plants were most susceptible to defoliation and young shoot removal during the spring flush when carbohydrate levels were at their lowest. During the rest of the growing season carbohydrate levels were high. At these times moderate to heavy (50 % to 75 % leaf removal) defoliations resulted in the greatest leaf and shoot growth.

In contrast, the initial and continuing impact of avian and insect consumption of leaves only reduced leaf and shoot production. The stimulatory effect of defoliation in one season carried through the dormant season to the following growing season. Defoliations during the dormant season did not have any positive or negative impact on plants relative to non‐defoliated plants. Leaf and shoot material removed when the plants were growing, was replaced within weeks of defoliation.     

Research note: A preliminary study of the root distribution of Commiphora pyracanthoides Engl. (BURSERACEAE) in the Sweet Bushveld of the Northern Province,South Africa

Abstract

The root distribution of Commiphora pyracanthoides Engl., a potential encroaching woody species in the sweet bushveld areas of the Northern Province, South Africa, was studied at the Mara Agricultural Development Centre. The root system of ten C. pyracanthoides shrubs consisted of a taproot system supported by a well developed fleshy secondary root system. Minimum branching of secondary roots occurred, resulting in the absence of tertiary and feeder roots. Weak relationships existed between root distribution, plant height and canopy diameter, but subjectively estimated, secondary roots extended horizontally at an average depth of 15 ‐20 cm to a distance of more or less 1–1.5 times the canopy diameter and 1.5–2 times tree height. It is proposed that the correct placement of soil‐applied arboricides and/or absorption mechanisms may be critical for effective chemical control of C. pyracanthoides.     

三种药用甘草种子位置效应对幼苗建植特性的影响

通过对甘草属3种植物,光果甘草、胀果甘草、乌拉尔甘草植株不同部位种子的萌发特性、幼苗生长特性、叶绿素含量、叶绿素荧光参数的测定和比较,探讨了3种药用甘草植株不同部位种子的萌发策略、幼苗的生长适应性,为更清楚地认识甘草属植物种子萌发与幼苗建植策略提供科学依据。结果表明,1)光果甘草植株中、上部,胀果甘草和乌拉尔甘草植株中、下部种子具有较高的出苗率,是种子繁殖的主要保障,但存活率无差异。2)具有较高出苗率的种子萌发形成的幼苗具有较大的生物量、较长的根长,且根冠比也相对较高,其分配到地下部分生物量多于地上部分,发达的根系可增强幼苗的抗逆性和对环境的适应性;而地上部分叶片的叶绿素相对含量、可变荧光(F_v)、最大荧光产量(F_m)、PSⅡ光化学效率(F_v/F_m)、PSⅡ潜在的光化学活性(F_v/F₀)和光反应阶段电子传递的速率也相对较高,荧光动力学曲线也反映出其具有较强的荧光强度、电子捕获和光能利用率,进而增强了幼苗建植能力。3)具有较低出苗率的种子萌发形成的幼苗具有较高的株高,较多的叶片数,可以通过优先占领空间和光源来维持生长。综上所述,3种药用甘草不同位置的种子具有不同种子萌发和幼苗生长策略,这对野生甘草自然种群的幼苗建植和种群更新有着重要的生态学意义。     

How seed defense and seed abundance predict dispersal and survival patterns in Camellia

Little is known about how seed defense and seed abundance interact with behavioral responses of seed dispersers to predict dispersal and survival dynamics in animal‐dispersed plants. By tracking the fate of individual seeds in Camellia stands with high and low seed abundance in Southwest China in 2007, we investigated the dispersal and survival of 2 high‐saponin Camellia species (Camellia oleifera and Camellia sinensis and 1 non‐saponin species (peanut Arachis hypogaea) as a control. Saponins in Camellia seeds are chemical compounds that act as seed defense. Our results were most consistent with the predictions based on the predator satiation hypothesis and the plant defense hypothesis. At the abundant Camellia stand (predators and dispersers were satiated), more Camellia seeds survived at the source but fewer were hoarded and survived at cache sites. At the sparse Camellia stand (predators and dispersers were not satiated), no Camellia seeds survived at the source, but more Camellia seeds were hoarded and survived at cache sites. Unlike Camellia seeds, no peanuts survived at the source at both stands, while more peanuts were hoarded and then survived at cache sites in the abundant Camellia stand compared to none at the sparse Camellia stand. In addition, the 2 Camellia species showed similar trends for seed fates across different dispersal stages. Our study indicates that the combined effects of seed abundance and seed defense, compared to their separate effects, provide a more accurate prediction for dispersal and survival patterns in animal‐dispersed Camellia species.     

高山植物种子萌发、幼苗存活和定居对气候变化的响应

高山植物的自然更新,是高寒山区植物群落多样性的维持以及群落生产力高低的重要前提条件。弄清其在未来气候变化下的响应特征,可为准确评估高山生态系统响应气候变化的演变方向和格局提供数据支撑,并为探索内在的演变机制提供理论依据。本文从高山植物种子萌发、幼苗存活与定居的3个关键更新环节展开,综述了生物因素(植物自身因素、植物间相互作用、动物干扰、昆虫授粉等)和非生物因素(温度、水分、土壤性质等)对这3个关键环节影响的研究结果。在种子萌发阶段,极端干旱和高山积雪提前融化改变植物–传粉昆虫相互关系和营养结构网络。升温和降水增加促进植物种子萌发,升温能打破种子休眠改变种子生理状况,而增加土壤水分能为种子萌发提供充足的水分供应。而温度过高和水分过多却对种子萌发产生阻碍作用,归因于温度高于萌发阈值造成高温胁迫,土壤水分过多产生病原体。幼苗存活和定居阶段,植食动物干扰和植物种间竞争对幼苗的存活和定居有利有弊,适当的动物干扰增加幼苗生长空间,资源贫乏山地的植物种间竞争促使幼苗相互协调共生,促进存活和定居。动物对幼苗的高强度取食和干扰及资源富足的区域植物种间竞争造成植物资源获取受阻,都抑制幼苗存活和定居。迄今为...     

凋落物和覆土对防风种子萌发及早期生长的影响

试验研究了凋落物和覆土对防风Saposhnikovia divaricata出苗及早期生长的影响,旨为保护野生防风资源提供理论依据。试验表明覆土处理对防风出苗、存活、叶片数目、株高和生物量都有积极的影响。覆土的防风种苗出苗率、存活率和种苗的生物量分别比不覆土的高8.45%、15.29%和1.72 mg。防风的出苗率随着凋落物量的增加而显著(P0.05)降低,但凋落物覆盖的防风种苗的存活率是无凋落物覆盖的近2倍。少量的凋落物覆盖对防风种苗株高和生物量起积极作用,当凋落物量增多(100 g/m2)时主要起消极的作用,表现为明显降低叶片数目、株高和生物量。总之,覆土有利于防风种苗建植,覆盖凋落物50~100g/m2有利于野生防风资源恢复,覆盖凋落物高于100 g/m2将会抑制野生防风资源恢复。因此,为了保护和恢复野生防风资源,建议天然草地的围栏封育年限不宜太长。     

Effects of selective defoliation and height of defoliation on tiller dynamics and herbage yield of Themeda triandra in a semi-arid rangeland in Zimbabwe

Understanding the impacts of intensity and selection of grazing on the performance of grasses is important in the management of grazing areas. It is especially important in semi-arid environments where, apart from moisture, the levels at which grasses are utilized has a major influence on their persistence in the environment. The effects of selective defoliation and height of defoliation (5 cm and 10 cm stubble heights) on the performance of the grass, Themeda triandra, were investigated in a field experiment for two growing seasons. Performance was measured as tiller production, rate of production, tiller mortality, herbage yield and quality. Tiller production was greater (81 tillers per plant) under non-selective defoliation than under selective defoliation (49 tillers per plant) in the 1995/1996 season. Tiller mortality was higher (66.45%) under heavy selective defoliation than under nonselective defoliation (21.98%). Herbage yield, apart from the control treatment, was high (13.6 g per plant) under light non-selective defoliation. Heavy selective defoliation reduced the nutrient levels (e.g. levels of soluble carbohydrates under heavy selective defoliation were 6 g kg^?1 glucose compared to 20 g kg^?1 glucose under light non-selective defoliation).     

盐胁迫对菘蓝幼苗生长和抗性生理的影响

以“定蓝1号”为试验材料,采用不同浓度NaCl溶液(0,30,60,90,120和150 mmol·L^-1)对菘蓝幼苗进行处理,胁迫14 d后测定了其生长指标、生物量积累、叶片相对含水量、根系活力、根质膜透性、渗透调节物质含量以及抗氧化酶活性等指标,分析不同程度盐胁迫对菘蓝幼苗生长和抗性生理的影响。结果表明:NaCl胁迫对菘蓝幼苗株高和根长都有抑制作用,对根和叶的物质积累也有显著影响,并随浓度的递增呈降低的趋势;菘蓝幼苗叶片相对含水量和根系活力均随NaCl浓度的增加呈现下降趋势,而根质膜透性、叶片脯氨酸含量则呈升高趋势;丙二醛(MDA)含量、组织自动氧化速率(RAD)、过氧化物酶(POD)活性和超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性都随NaCl浓度的增加呈先升高后降低的趋势。但当NaCl浓度低于90 mmol·L^-1时,菘蓝幼苗的生长没有受到盐胁迫的明显抑制,根系活力降低不明显,脯氨酸、丙二醛含量和保护酶活性也未显著升高,说明菘蓝幼苗对低浓度盐环境具有一定的耐受性。     

草原灌丛化入侵:过程、机制和效应

草原灌丛化已成为全球性问题,也是生态学、畜牧学研究的热点问题。紧扣草原灌丛化过程、发生机理及其生态学后效等关键问题,介绍了国内外的最新研究进展。灌木入侵途径包括有意识引进入侵和自然入侵2类,入侵过程分为传播到达、定居建群和扩散入侵3个阶段。放牧、火烧、温室气体增加,干旱以及降水格局改变等均可导致草本向木本的转化,且机制复杂,主要有影响草本,木本植物盖度、水分利用效率、化感作用等。木本植物入侵打破了草原生态系统的稳定,表现出沃岛效应,影响动植物的分布以及生态系统的功能和服务。阐明草原“草本-木本”群落演替机制,可为我国研究草原灌丛化和管理提供理论借鉴。     

不同禾本科牧草种子萌发及幼苗耐盐性鉴定

采用培养皿纸上发芽法和盆栽幼苗培育法,在NaCl和Na2SO4复盐溶液7个盐浓度梯度下(0.4%~1.6%),比较分析了5种禾本科牧草种子的相对发芽率、相对发芽势、胚根胚芽比、发芽指数、简化活力指数;在NaCl和Na2SO4复盐溶液5个盐浓度梯度下(0.3%~1.5%),比较分析了5种禾本科牧草幼苗的MDA含量和游离脯氨酸含量的变化。运用隶属函数评价、分析盐胁迫对不同禾本科牧草种子萌发及幼苗的影响,为牧草耐盐性鉴定、耐盐育种和盐碱地牧草栽培提供理论参考。研究结果表明,5种禾本科牧草在萌发期和苗期耐盐能力排序依次为:垂穗披碱草细茎冰草、老芒麦扁穗冰草无芒雀麦。     

放牧季节及放牧强度对高寒草地植物多样性的影响

在海北高寒草地进行了7年轻度放牧、中度放牧和重度放牧试验,并用围栏控制放牧进行对照.试验显示,物种丰富度和均匀度在夏季牧场和冬季牧场出现不同的变化.在夏季牧场,物种丰富度随着放牧强度的增强而增强,而均匀度则随着放牧强度的增强而下降;在冬季牧场,物种丰富度和放牧之间呈现驼峰反应模式,说明植物的丰富度在中度放牧强度时达到最大.不同牧场生物多样性变化的模式说明夏季牧场放牧强度不足.