Population size and selection intensity effects on short-term response for a selection index in Tribolium

SUMMARY: The effects of population size and selection intensity on the short-term response to selection were investigated in an experiment with Tribolium, using a two-trait empirical selection index for pupal and adult weights. Twenty lines were selected following a factorial design of five population sizes (1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 pairs of parents) and four selection intensities (20, 25, 33, and 50%), with three replicates. For each replicate, an unselected control with 16 pairs of parents was produced. There were four generations of selection per line. Selection response was significant in all lines with the 20% selection intensity and/or the 16-pair population size. Selection intensity and population size were significant effects and there was significant interaction between them. Higher selection intensities produced more overall significant response to selection (20% > (25% = 33%) > 50%); this significance was also found for the 16-pair population size. There was an overall significant difference among population sizes, with the larger population sizes giving more response than the smaller sizes (16-pair = 8-pair = 4-pair) > (2-pair = 1-pair); this significance was also found for the 20% selection intensity. There was a good agreement between observed and expected responses, except for the 50% selection intensity and/or 1-pair population size; expected values in generation 1 overestimated observed values. The realized heritability was similar in all lines. With equal and high numbers of individuals scored, it was better to choose a high selection intensity than a large population size. The results show that the effect of population size cannot be ignored, even in short-term selection response; the main influence of population size is through selection differential. RESUMEN: Los efectos del tama?o de población y la intensidad de selección sobre la respuesta a corto plazo para un índice de selección en Tribolium Los efectos del tama?o de población y la intensidad de selección sobre la respuesta a la selección a corto plazo fueron estudiados en un experimento con Tribolium usando un índice empírico de selección para dos caracteres (peso de pupa y peso adulto). Se seleccionaron 20 líneas siguiendo un modelo factorial de cinco tama?os de población (1, 2, 4, 8 y 16 pares de padres) y cuatro intensidades de selección (20, 25, 33 y 50%), con tres repeticiones. En cada repetición, había una línea control sin seleccionar con 16 pares de padres. Se hicieron cuatro generaciones de selección, por línea. La respuesta a la selección fue significativa en todas las líneas con el 20% de intensidad de selección y/o 16 pares de padres. Tanto la intensidad de selección como el tama?o de población fueron efectos significativos y hubo interacción significativa entre ellos. Las intensidades de selección más altas produjeron significativamente más respuesta en general (20% > (25% = 33%) > 50%), y esta significación se mantenía cuando el tama?o de población era de 16 pares de padres. Hubo diferencias significativas entre tama?os de población, dando los mayores tama?os más respuesta en general que los menores tama?os (16 pares = 8 pares = 4 pares) > (2 pares = 1 par), manteniendose esta significación para la intensidad de selección del 20%. La concordancia entre las respuestas observadas y las esperadas era buena, excepto cuando la intensidad de selección era 50% y/o el tama?o de población era 1 par de padres; los valores esperados en la generación 1 sobreestimaban los valores observados. La heredabilidad realizada fue similar en todas las líneas. Cuando el número total de animales era igual y alto, era mejor elegir una intensidad de selección alta que un tama?o de población grande. Los resultados indican que el efecto del tama?o de población no se puede ignorar incluso en experimentos de selección a corto plazo, y que la influencia principal de este efecto es a través del diferencial de selección.     

Assortative mating and directional or stabilizing selection for a non-linear function of traits in Tribolium

SUMMARY: Assortative or random mating following selection in either direction on a non-linear index (experiment 1) or stabilizing selection for pupal length (experiment 2) were carried out for five generations in two lines of Tribolium castaneum (A and R, respectively), with three replicates each. The selected proportion was 25% in all lines. In experiment 1, the selection criterion was designed to increase the aggregate value of adult weight and the first- and second-order powers of pupal length. The A and R lines gave significant responses for the aggregate value (184 ± 6 and 161 ± 14, respectively), pupal length (0.74 ± 0.02 and 0.64 ± 0.05, respectively), and adult weight (0.79 ± 0.03 and 0.78 ± 0.12, respectively). Although the A line was not significantly better than the R line, there was a consistent advantage for assortative mating over random mating, the mean response for aggregate value and pupal length being approximately 1.15 times greater for the A line. In experiment 2 the selection criterion was the square of the deviation from the mean pupal length (stabilizing selection); both lines did not show any change for pupal length. The phenotypic variance showed a significant decrease in the A and R lines, due to a decrease in between-family variance. The assortatively and randomly mated lines were similar for these changes in phenotypic variation. RESUMEN: Aparemiento clasificado y selección direccional o estabilizante para una función no lineal en Tribolium. Dos líneas de Tribolium castaneum fueron seleccionadas direccionalmente para un índice no lineal (experimento 1) o estabilizantemente para longitud de pupa (experimento 2), apareando los animales seleccionados clasificadamente (A) o aleatoriamente (R). Había tres repeticiones por experimento y línea, siendo la proporción de selección el 25%. En el experimento 1, el objetivo de selección incluía el peso adulto así como la longitud de pupa y su cuadrado. Ambas líneas dieron respuesta significativa para el valor agregado y sus dos caracteres componentes. Había una ventaja consistente aunque no significativa para el apareamiento clasificado, siendo la respuesta media para valor agregado y longitud de pupa 1.15 veces mayor en la línea A. En el experimento 2, el criterio de selección era el cuadrado de la desviación con respecto a la media de longitud de pupa (selección estabilizante); ambas líneas no mostraron ningún cambio significativo en longitud de pupa. La varianza fenotípica tuvo una disminución significativa debida a una reducción de la varianza genética, siendo estos cambios similares en ambas líneas. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Assortative Paarung, gerichtete oder stabilisierende Selektion für nicht-lineare Funktion von Merkmalen in Triboleum Assortative oder Zufallspaarung nach gerichteter Selektion in beiden Richtungen für nicht-lineare Merkmale (Versuch 1) oder stabilisierende für Puppenl?nge (Versuch 2) wurden über 5 Generationen bei Triboleum castaneum (A bzw. R), mit je 3 Wiederholungen und 25% Remonte, durchgeführt. In Versuch 1 sollten adultes Gewicht und 1. und 2. Potenz der Puppenl?nge gesteigert werden. A und R Linien ergaben signifikante Selektionserfolge für Gesamtwert (184 ± 6 bezw. 161 ± 14), Puppenl?nge (0,74 ± 02, 0.64 ± 05) und adultes Gewicht (0.74 ± 03 und 0.78 ± 0.12). Obwohl Linie A nicht statistisch signifikant überlegen war, zeigte sich durchgehend überlegenheit gegenüber R Linien, im Durchschnitt 1,15 mal. In Versuch 2 zeigte keine der beiden Linien Ver?nderungen der Puppenl?nge, aber die Varianz nahm signifikant ab wegen Verminderung der Varianz zwischen Familien, deren Abnahme in der zufalls- und in der assortativ gepaarten Linie gleich gro? war. RéSUMé: Accouplement classé et sélection directionelle o stabilisant pour une fonction no lineal chez Tribolium Deux lingnées de Tribolium castaneum on été soumis a sélection directionelle par un index no lineal (Expérience 1) o stabilisant pour la longeur de la pupae (Expérience 2), avec accouplement des animaux sélectiones de fa?on classé (A) ou aléatoire (R). Le travail compris 3 répétitions pour chacune des expériences et lignée, avec une presion de sélection du 25%. Dans l'expérience 1 l'objetive de sélection était composé pour le poids adult, la longeur de la pupae et sa carrée. On a obten? une réponse significative chez les deux lignées por l'agregé et aussi pour les deux caractéres. On a obten? une superiorité no significative mais consistant de l'accouplement classé, étant la réponse moyenne pour l'agregé et la longeur de la pupae 1.15 fois plus grand chez la lignée A. Pour l'experience 2 le critére de selection etait le carrée de la deviation a la moyenne de la longeur de la pupae (sélection stabilisant); aucune des lignees montrait changes significatives pour la longeur de la pupae. La variation phénotypique montre une réduction significative ` cause de la réduction du variation génétique, avec changes similaires chez les deux lignees.     

Change in genetic correlation due to selection using animal model evaluation

SUMMARY: Monte Carlo simulation and analytical calculations were used to study the effect of selection on genetic correlation between two traits. The simulated breeding program was based on a closed adult multiple ovulation and embryo transfer nucleus breeding scheme. Selection was on an index calculated using multi-trait animal model (AM). Analytical formulae applicable to any evaluation method were derived to predict change in genetic (co)variance due to selection under multi-trait selection using different evaluation methods. Two formulae were investigated, one assuming phenotypic selection and the other based on a recursive two-generation AM selection index. The recursive AM method approximated information due to relatives by a relationship matrix of two generations. Genetic correlation after selection was compared under different levels of initial genetic and environmental correlations with two different selection criteria. Changes in genetic correlation were similar in simulation and analytical predictions. After one round of selection the recursive AM method and the simulation gave similar predictions while the phenotypic selection predicted usually more change in genetic correlation. After several rounds of selection both analytical formulae predicted more change in genetic correlation than the simulation. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: ?nderung der genetischen Korrelation bei Selektion mit einem Tiermodell Der Selektionseffekt auf die genetische Korrelation zwischen zwei Merkmalen wurde mit Hilfe von Monte Carlo-Simulation und analytischen Berechnungen untersucht. Ein geschlossener Adulter - MOET (Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer) Zuchtplan wurde simuliert. Die Selektion gründete sich auf einen Index, der die Zuchtwertsch?tzung des Mehrmerkmals-Tiermodells benutzte. Analytische Formeln für die Voraussage der ?nderung der genetischen (Ko)varianz unter multivariate Selektion für verschiedene Zuchtwertsch?tzungsmethode wurden deduziert. Zwei Formeln wurden studiert, die erste nahm ph?notypische Auswahl an und die andere gründete sich auf ein wiederholte Mehrmerkmals-Tiermodell von zwei Generationen. Das wiederholte Mehrmerkmals-Tiermodell approximierte die Information aus den Verwandten mit Hilfe einer Verwandtschaftsmatrix der zwei Generationen. Die genetische Korrelation nach der Selektion aus der Simulation und den analytischen Formeln wurde mit verschiedenen reellen genetischen und umweltbedingten Korrelationen mit zwei Selektionskriterien verglichen. Sie ?nderte sich ?hnlich bei Simulation und analytischen Formeln. Nach einem Selektionszyklus kamen das wiederholte Mehrmerkmals-Tiermodell und die Simulation zu gleichen Voraussagen, aber die ph?notypische Selektion sagte mehr ?nderung voraus. Nach mehreren selektierten Generationen sagten die beiden analytischen Formeln mehr ?nderung in der genetischen Korrelation voraus als die Simulation. RéSUMé: Changement de corrélation génétique du à la sélection en utilisant une évaluation de type modèle animal Une simulation Monte Carlo et des calculs analytiques ont été utilisés pour étudier l'effet de la sélection sur la corrélation génétique entre deux caractères. Le programme de sélection simulé a été basé sur le schéma d'un noyau de sélection adulte et fermé avec superovulation et transfert embryonnaire. La sélection portait sur un indice calculé à partir d'un modèle animal multicaractères (AM). Des formules analytiques applicables à n'importe quelle méthode d'évaluation ont été développées pour prédire le changement de (co)variance génétique du à la sélection multicaractères en utilisant différentes méthodes d'évaluation. Deux formules ont été étudiées, l'une supposant une sélection phénotypique et l'autre basée sur un index de sélection de type AM sur deux générations. La méthode AM récurrente prenait en compte l'information des apparentés de manière approximative à travers la matrice de parenté sur deux générations. La corrélation génétique après sélection a été comparée à différents niveaux de corrélations génétique et environnementale pour deux critères de sélection différents. Les changements de corrélation génétique étaient similaires dans les simulations et les prédictions analytiques. Après un cycle de sélection, la méthode récurrente AM et la simulation donnaient les prédictions similaires alors que la sélection phénotypique prédisait habituellement des changements de corrélations génétiques plus importants. Après plusieurs cycles de sélection, les deux formules analytiques prédisaient des changements de corrélation plus importants que la simulation. RéSUMé: Cambio en la correlación genética debido a selección usando evaluaciones con modelo animal Se estudió el efecto de la selección sobre la correlación genética entre dos caracteres utilizando simulación de Monte Carlo y cálculos analíticos. El esquema de selección simulado estuvo basado en un núcleo adulto y cerrado de ovulación multiple y transferencia de embriones. El criterio de selección fue un indice calculado a partir de un modelo animal multicarácter (AM). Se derivaron fórmulas analíticas aplicables a cualquier método de evaluación para predecir cambios debidos a selección en las (co)varianzas genéticas bajo selección multicarácter usando distintos métodos de valoración. Se investigaron dos fórmulas, una que asumía selección fenotípica y la otra basada en un índice de selección AM recurrente con dos generaciones. El método AM recurrente aproximaba la información de parientes a través de una matriz de relaciones aditivas que contemplaba dos generaciones. La correlación genética tras la selección fue comparada bajo distintos niveles de correlación genética y ambiental iniciales con dos criterios de selección diferentes. Los cambios en correlatión genética fueron similares en las predicciones analíticas y con simulación. Tras un ciclo de selección, el método AM recurrente y la simulación produjeron predicciones similares mientras que la selección fenotípica predijo, generalmente, más cambio en la correlación genética. Después de varios ciclos de selección, las dos fórmulas analíticas predijeron más cambios en la correlación genética que la simulación.     

A mating system to reduce inbreeding in selection programmes: Theoretical basis and modification of compensatory mating

Increased rate of inbreeding in selection programmes may have an important effect on mid- and long-term selection response and reproductive performance through reduction in genetic variance and inbreeding depression. Selection on an inherited trait inflates the rate of inbreeding and reduces the effective population size (R obertson 1961; S antiago and C aballero 1995). This can be particularly important in selection based on index with information from relatives (L ush 1947) or best liner unbiased prediction (BLUP) with an animal model (H enderson 1984). In recent years, various methods have been proposed to reduce the rates of inbreeding in selection programmes while keeping genetic gains at the same level. These methods assume various selection and mating strategies. G rundy et al. (1994) showed that the use of biased heritability estimates for BLUP evaluation is one of the simplest and most efficient methods. A direct reduction in the weight on family mean in index selection (T oro and P erez -E nciso 1990), selection for weighted ancestral Mendelian sampling estimates (W oolliams and T hompson 1994; G rundy et al. 1998) and limited use of selected parents (T oro and N ieto 1984; W ei 1995) have also been shown to be efficient methods. Other methods include nonrandom matings of selected parents, such as factorial mating designs (W oolliams 1989), minimum coancestry mating (T oro et al. 1988) and compensatory mating (S antiago and C aballero 1995). Simultaneous optimization of the selection of candidates and their mating allocations has been also considered through mate selection with linear programming techniques (T oro and P erez -E nciso 1990). Among these methods, compensatory mating is a very simple and efficient method (G rundy et al. 1994; S antiago and C aballero 1995; C aballero et al. 1996). This mating system was derived from the theoretical consideration on effective population size under selection (S antiago and C aballero 1995). Although S antiago and C aballero (1995) considered that implementation of this mating could counteract the cumulative effect of selection on the effective population size, the theoretical basis has been little studied. In this paper, the author gives the theoretical basis of compensatory mating. A modification to enhance the effect of compensatory mating is also proposed and the efficiency is examined by stochastic simulation.     

Efficiency of selection methods for increased ratio of pupal-larval to adult-larval weight gains in Tribolium

SUMMARY: Four lines of Tribolium castaneum were selected in each of three replicates for increased ratio of (pupal-larval) to (adult-larval) weight gains, using selection for increased (pupal-larval) weight gain (PL), selection for decreased (adult-larval) weight gain (AL), direct selection for the ratio (R) and linear selection index of larval, pupal and adult weights (I), respectively, for four generations. Linear index was calculated with economic weights of m(2) -m(3) , m(3) -m(1) and m(1) -m(2) , respectively, with m(1) , m(2) and m(3) being the means for larval, pupal and adult weights. Selection to increase the ratio is considered to be a method to maximize the mean response in (adult-larval) weight while controlling the response in (pupal-adult) weight, and as a form of antagonistic selection to increase the weight gain during a given age period relative to the gain at another age period. Larval, pupal and adult weights were measured at 14, 21 and 28 days after adult emergence, respectively. The selected proportion was 20 % in all lines. The response observed for the ratio differed significantly among lines (p < 0.01), with the I and AL lines having the greatest responses. Line R was less effective in improving the objective of selection, while line PL appeared to be inappropriate. The observed responses for the numerator and denominator weight gains were positive in line PL, and negative in the AL, R and I lines. All lines apart from line PL decreased the (adult-larval) weight, holding (pupal-adult) weight constant. Larval weight showed the greatest influence on the response for the objective of selection. The results for this greater than 1 ratio are compared with results of others for smaller than 1 ratios, in which indirect selection for increased numerator is the more efficient alternative to the selection index. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Effizienz Selektionsverfahren zur Verbesserung des Quotienten der Gewichtsentwicklung zwischen Puppe/Larve und K?fer/Larve bei Tribolium. In den jeweils drei Versuchsserien zur Erh?hung des Quotienten (Gewicht von Puppe-Larve/Gewicht von K?fer-Larve) wurden vier Versuchsreihen von Tribolium castaneum untersucht: die Versuchsreihe PL wurde gew?hlt um die Differenz (Puppengewicht-Larvengewicht) zu erh?hen, die Versuchsreihe AL wurde gew?hlt um die Differenz (K?fergewicht-Larvengewicht) zu reduzieren, die Versuchsreihe R wurde direkt für den Koeffizienten gew?hlt und die Auswahl der Versuchsreihe I erfolgte über einen linearen Index, errechnet aus dem Gewicht von Larven, Puppen und K?fern über vier Generationen. Der lineare Index wurde berechnet aus den Gewichten von (m(2) -m(3) ), (m(3) -m(1) ) bzw. (m(1) -m(2) ), wobei m(1) , m(2) und m(3) die Mittelwerte für das Gewicht von Larven, Puppen bzw. K?fern sind. Die Auswahl zur Erh?hung des Quotienten ist eine Methode zur Maximierung des Durchschnittsgewichtsverh?ltnisses K?fer/Larve, sowie eine antagonische Auswahlform zur Erh?hung der Gewichtszunahme w?hrend einer bestimmten Wachstumsperiode im Vergleich zur Gewichtszunahme w?hrend einer anderen Wachstumsperiode. Das Selektionsverh?ltnis belief sich auf 20%. Die beim Quotienten beobachtete Antwort wies bedeutende Unterschiede zwischen Versuchsreihen auf (p < 0.01), wobei die h?chsten Antworten bei den Versuchsreihen I und AL beobachtet wurden. Versuchsreihe R war am wenigsten effektiv, w?hrend Versuchsreihe PL nicht geeignet schien, das Auswahlziel zu verbessern. Die bei Nenner und Z?hler beobachteten Antworten waren positiv bei der Versuchsreihe PL und negativ bei den anderen drei Versuchsreihen. Die Ergebnisse für diesen Quotient gr??er als 1 wurden mit denen anderer Versuche für Quotienten kleiner als 1 verglichen, bei denen die Auswahl zur Erh?hung des Z?hlers die effizienteste Alternative zum Auswahlindex ist. RESUMEN: Eficiencia de métodos de selección para incrementar el cociente entre la ganancia en peso de pupa-peso de larva y la ganancia en peso de adulto-peso de larva en Tribolium Cuatro líneas de Tribolium castaneum fueron seleccionadas en cada una de tres repeticiones para incrementar el cociente (peso de pupa-peso de larva)/(peso de adulto-peso de larva); la línea PL fue seleccionada para aumentar la diferencia (peso de pupa-pesp de larva), la línea AL fue seleccionada para disminuir la diferencia (peso de adulto-peso de larva), fa línea R fue seleccionada directamente para el cociente, y la línea I fue seleccionada por medio de un índice lineal basado en los pesos de larva, pupa y adulto, durante cuatro generaciones. El índice lineal se calculó con pesos económicos de (m(2) -m(3) ), (m(3) -m(1) ), y (m(1) -m(2) ) respectivamentee, siendo m(1) , m(2) , y m(3) los valores medios para el peso de larva, pupa y adulto. La selección para aumentar el cociente indicado es un método para maximizar la respuesta en (peso de adulto-peso de larva) controlando al tiempo la respuesta en (peso de pupa-peso de adulto), y es una forma de selección antagónica para aumentar la ganancia de peso durante un periodo de edad en relación con la ganancia en peso durante otro periodo. La proporción de selección due el 20 %. La respuesta observada en el cociente difería significativamente entre lineas (p < 0.01), teniendo las líneas I y AL las mayores respuestas. La línea R fue menos efectiva, mientras que la línea PL parecía inapropiada para mejorar el objetiyo de selección. Las respuestas observadas en el denominador y en el numerador fueron positivas en la línea PL, y negativas en las otras tres líneas. Los resultados para este cociente mayor que 1 se comparan con los de otros experimentos para cocientes menores que 1, en los que la selección para incrementar el numerador es la alternativa más eficiente al índice de selección.     

Divergent selection for fleece weight in French Angora rabbits: Non-genetic effects, genetic parameters and response to selection

In order to explore genetic variability of wool production and other quantitative traits, an 8-cohort divergent selection experiment for total fleece weight (TFW) was carried out in French Angora rabbits. Studies were made on the wool production of 669 female rabbits born between 1994 and 2001 and having produced wool from the third to 12th harvests. The aim of the selection experiment was to obtain two divergent lines (low and high) on total fleece weight. The studied traits included total fleece weight, weight of the two qualities of wool (WAJ1 and WAW1), homogeneity (HOM), live body weight at ages of 4 (LW4), 8 (LW8), 12 (LW12), 16 (LW16), and 20 (LW20) weeks and then 9 weeks before each harvest (9LW). A preliminary analysis of non-genetic factors was done with the GLM procedure. The genetic parameters and genetic trends were analysed using a BLUP animal model. Heritability estimates for TFW, WAJ1, WAW1, HOM, LW4, LW8, LW12, LW16, LW20 and 9LW were 0.38, 0.30, 0.10, 0.06, 0.30, 0.09, 0.14, 0.32, 0.39 and 0.45, respectively. Genetic and phenotypic correlations between TFW and WAJ1 were high (0.98 ± 0.01 and 0.89 ± 0.01, respectively). There was a low genetic correlation between TFW and 9LW (0.26 ± 0.12). After eight cohorts of selection, the divergence between the lines was approximately three genetic standard deviations. Selection for total fleece weight had a generally beneficial effect on fleece quality.     

综合选择指数在肉鸽育种工作中的应用

探讨综合选择指数在肉鸽育种中的应用方法。测得银王鸽产蛋率、受精率、28日龄重、雏鸽存活率四个经济性状的数据,根据肉鸽各个经济性状的权重系数进行加权,制订出适合肉鸽的综合选择指数。     

Comparison of selection based on phenotype,selection index and best linear unbiased prediction using data from a closed broiler line

1. Selection based on three methods of estimating breeding values, Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP), selection index (SI), and phenotype (SP) were compared for three traits, juvenile body weight (JW), percentage breast meat yield (BM) and hen‐day rate of egg production (EP) using records provided by a commercial broiler breeding company.

2. Product moment correlations were calculated between breeding values estimated by each method and averaged across sexes. A mean correlation of 0.69 was obtained between selection on SP and BLUP for JW. Mean correlations of 0.88 and 0.68 and 0.87 were obtained between SI and BLUP for the traits JW, EP and BM, respectively.

3. A mean estimated genetic response of 77.7% was obtained with SP for JW relative to BLUP in the absence of restrictions on the selection of close relatives. Estimated genetic responses of 90.7%, 66.9% and 88.4% were obtained by SI relative to BLUP for JW, EP and BM, respectively.

4. Applying restrictions on the selection of close relatives resulted in slight decreases in estimated responses but not in the respective ranking of the selection methods.

5. The results indicate that BLUP could provide commercial breeders with increased selection responses compared to index selection, in particular for traits of low heritability and where relatively few animals possess performance records.     

The effect of divergent selection for uterine capacity on prenatal survival in rabbits: maternal and embryonic genetic effects

The aim of this work was to determine whether prenatal survival depends on the genotype of the mother or of the embryo and to identify the critical periods for prenatal mortality in two lines of rabbits divergently selected by high (H) and low (L) uterine capacity. Does from H (n = 124) and L (n = 115) lines were slaughtered at 72 h of gestation. Embryos recovered at 72 h of gestation were transferred to the oviducts of recipient does from the H (n = 23) and L (n = 19) lines. Each recipient does received eight embryos from the H line into one oviduct and eight embryos from the L line into the other. Recipient does were slaughtered on d 28 of gestation. No differences were found between lines in the embryo recovery either in ovulation rate (OR) or in fertilization rate of ova recovered. Recovery rate was higher for the H line (0.80 vs. 0.72, P < 0.01). The number of embryos recovered, fitting ovulation rate as a covariate, was also higher for the H line (9.74 vs. 8.78, P < 0.05). The H line showed a more advanced embryonic stage of development, having a higher percentage of blastocysts (PB) and a lower percentage of compact morulae (PCM) (38% vs. 20%, P < 0.001 for PB, and 51% vs. 64%, P < 0.01 for PCM). The percentage of early morulae was low and similar in both lines. Neither donor nor recipient lines affected embryonic survival from 72 h to 7 d of gestation. Fetal survival was affected by the recipient line (P < 0.05). An interaction between donor and recipient was found. Embryos from the H donor line had a better fetal survival rate than embryos from the L donor line (P < 0.05) in H recipient females. Within L recipient females, embryos from H and L donor lines showed similar fetal survival. Fetal survival was divided into early (from d 7 to 17 of gestation) and late (from d 17 to 28 of gestation). The high recipient line showed a higher early fetal survival than the L recipient line (P < 0.05). The same effect was observed for late fetal survival, but the difference between H and L recipient lines was lower (P < 0.10). Thus, fetal survival depends mainly on the maternal genotype, and the embryo genotype only affects fetal survival when embryo transfer is performed to a favorable maternal environment. Selection for uterine capacity in rabbits leads to modification of early embryonic survival and of early and late fetal survival, but differences are higher for early than for late fetal survival.     

Effects of data structure and selection on estimated inbreeding depression in experimental Tribolium castaneum lines

SUMMARY: Inbreeding depression was estimated for four experimental Tribolium castaneum lines. Each line, containing approximately 7000 animals, was selected for 16 generations either randomly (control), on pupae weight (PWT), on family size (FST) or on an index containing both PWT and FST. The inbreeding trend was 0.9, 0.5, 0.5 and 0.4 % inbreeding per generation in PWT-selected, FST-selected, index-selected, and control line, respectively. The model used to estimate the inbreeding depression included a linear regression on individual inbreeding coefficients, and random additive genetic effects. Using all the performance and pedigree data, estimated inbreeding depressions in the control line were -0.13 (SE = 0.16; #) and -8.50 (SE = 2.66; μg) per 1 % inbreeding for FST and PWT, respectively. Using only performance data of the latest generation in the control line, the estimated inbreeding depressions changed considerably: -0.17 (SE = 0.82) and -37.4 (SE= 11.9) for FST and PWT, respectively. Estimated inbreeding depression for FST in the FST-selected line was - 0.40 (SE = 0.31). Inbreeding depression for PWT in the PWT-selected line was 21.6 (SE = 25.8). This study indicates that estimating inbreeding depression might best be based on the performance data of animals with an equal and sufficiently-large number of ancestral generations known. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Wirkung von Datenstruktur und Selektion auf gesch?tzte Inzuchtdepression in experimentellen Triboleum castaneum Linien Jede der vier experimentellen Linien, aus je etwa 7000 Individuen, wurde durch 16 Generationen selektiert, zuf?llig die Kontrolle, auf Puppengewicht (PWT), Familiengr??e (FST), oder auf einen beide Merkmale kombinierenden Index. Inzucntzuw?chse in diesen vier Linien waren 0.4, 0.9, 0.5 und 0.5% je Generation. Das Modell zur Sch?tzung der Inzuchtdepression beinhaltete eine lineare Regression auf individuelle Inzuchtkoeffizienten und zuf?llige additive-genetische Wirkungen. Aus allen Daten, Leistung und Pedigree, ergaben sich -0.13 (SE = 0.16; #) und - 8.5 (SE = 2.66; mg) je 1% Inzucht für FST und PWT, Daten der letzten Generation ergaben deutlich andere Werte: -0.17 (SE = 0.82) und -37.4 (SE = 11.9) für FST und PWT. Inzuchtdepressionen für FST bzw. PWT in den jeweils hierfür selektierten Linien waren -0.40 (SE = 0.31) und 21.6 (SE = 25.8). Es wird gefolgert, da? Sch?tzungen auf Leistungen von hinreichend gro?er Zahl von Vorfahrengenerationen beruhen sollten.     

Prediction of response to marker-assisted and genomic selection using selection index theory

Selection index methods can be used for deterministic assessment of the potential benefit of including marker information in genetic improvement programmes using marker-assisted selection (MAS). By specifying estimates of breeding values derived from marker information (M-EBV) as a correlated trait with heritability equal to 1, it was demonstrated that marker information can be incorporated in standard software for selection index predictions of response and rates of inbreeding, which requires specifying phenotypic traits and their genetic parameters. Path coefficient methods were used to derive genetic and phenotypic correlations between M-EBV and the phenotypic data. Methods were extended to multi-trait selection and to the case when M-EBV are based on high-density marker genotype data, as in genomic selection. Methods were applied to several example scenarios, which confirmed previous results that MAS substantially increases response to selection but also demonstrated that MAS can result in substantial reductions in the rates of inbreeding. Although further validation by stochastic simulation is required, the developed methodology provides an easy means of deterministically evaluating the potential benefits of MAS and to optimize selection strategies with availability of marker data.     

Optimization of selection and mating schemes in closed broiler lines

Minimum coancestry mating (MC) is a simple mating system to reduce inbreeding in populations, in which matings are allocated so as to minimize the average inbreeding coefficient of progeny. This system was compared with random mating (RM) in simulated broiler lines. The population structure and genetic parameters were determined on the basis of an existing broiler line. Comparison of mating systems was made under two selection methods. The first method (DIS) was based on selection index for achieving desired genetic gains. In the second method (LPS), a combination of the family index and linear programming technique was applied to obtain the desired genetic gains. The selected traits were body weight at 6 weeks of both sexes and age at sexual maturity of hen. Four schemes by all the possible combinations of selection and mating methods (DIS + RM, DIS + MC, LPS + RM and LPS + MC) were compared in terms of genetic gains and inbreeding during 15 generations of selection and mating. The results obtained are summarized as follows: (i) the four schemes produced similar genetic gains averaged over replicates; (ii) the variations of genetic gains under LPS + RM and LPS + MC schemes were much smaller than under DIS + RM and DIS + MC schemes; (iii) irrespective of the selection methods, MC reduced the average inbreeding coefficients to about 80% of RM and; (iv) the inbreeding coefficients of individuals in the schemes with RM were distributed in a wide range, while the inbreeding coefficients in the schemes with MC showed a high uniformity. From these results, the LPS + MC scheme was recommended as a selection and mating strategy in closed broiler lines.     

The effect of mating age on the reproductive performance,food utilisation and liveweight change of the female pig

Sixty-four crossbred gilts were used to study the effect of mating at the first oestrus period following puberty. Puberty was induced at different ages by the introduction of the gilts to boars at either 160 or 200 days of age. Mating was delayed until second oestrus, when the mean age of the two groups was 197.8 and 237.2 days respectively. The difference of 39.4 ± 5.14 days was significant (P < 0.001). There were no significant differences in the number of weight of pigs born or reared in any of the first five parities. Thirty four sows (seventeen from each treatment) completed five parities. The gilts mated at 237 days of age consumed 159 ± 38 kg (P < 0.01) more food between 160 days of age and weaning their fifth litters. The gilts mated at the younger age consumed 6.2% less food per unit of weaner liveweight over the five litters. Initial differences in liveweight between the two groups had disappeared by the middle of the second pregnancy.     

三江源区植植被指数时空变化对水热条件的响应

摘要：研究基于三江源区18个站点2000-2009共10年的气温、降水数据和MODIS（NDVI、EVI）植被指数,重点探讨三江源区植被指数的年际变化和空间变化对水热条件变化的响应机制。结果表明,1）三江源区植被指数在2000-2009年间总体上呈上升趋势;2）近10年内的植被指数均值在18个台站间分布极不均衡;3）分年（多台站）数据分析显示,降水在多数年份表现出与植被指数显著正相关,而气温在所有年份与植被指数都无显著相关性;4）分台站（多年）数据分析显示,分别有7个和5个台站的NDVI或EVI与降水和气温呈显著相关关系。总体看来,三江源区植被指数的分布及其与水热条件的关系都存在明显的时空差异,同时,植被指数变化对降水的响应强于气温,降水是影响三江源区植被生长的主导因子。     

Selection response in Tribolium to an index modified by introducing between-family or within-family or both restrictions in two steps

A fundamental strategy in selection programs is to combine maximum rate of response and minimum rate of inbreeding, these goals being in conflict with each other. Maximum selection response can be achieved at a cost of erosion in the effective number of breeding animals (a measure of the inbreeding level); reciprocally, the maximum effective number under selection can be preserved with a low response. The simultaneous consideration of both factors makes it difficult to decide on the use of individual (more effective in conserving effective number) or combined selection (maximizes response but yields low effective size). Q uinton et al. (1992) showed that comparing selection methods at the same level of inbreeding, rather than at the same selection intensity, changes the perspectives of current selection theory. If low to moderate inbreeding levels are considered, then phenotypic selection can yield higher response than selection on more accurate methods. Different methods have been proposed for maximizing selection response at the same level of inbreeding, i.e. to restrict the number of close relatives selected (N icholas and S mith 1983), to use false high heritability estimates in the genetic evaluation (G rundy and H ill 1993), to use assortative (S mith and H ammond 1986) or compensatory (G rundy et al. 1994) matings, to adjust estimated breeding values for the relationship with the already selected ones (G oddard and S mith 1990), to avoid matings of related individuals (T oro and P erez -E nciso 1990), or to use factorial rather than hierarchical matings (W oolliams 1989; L eitch et al. 1994). Q uinton and S mith (1995) compared the merits of these methods using stochastic simulation; they concluded that none of the methods was best over all conditions, and that the use of false high heritabilities, or adjusted estimated breeding values with the relationships, does not seem to be recommended; besides, mating together those individuals with the lowest relationship has little effect on the accumulated inbreeding. W ray and G oddard (1994), and B risbane and G ibson (1995) indicated that if G_n is the genetic mean after n generations of selection and F_n is the mean inbreeding coefficient, a reasonable selection objective is G_n ? DF_n, where D is the value of a unit of inbreeding relative to a unit of genetic gain. M euwissen (1997) showed that these methods do not guarantee maximum genetic gains at some level of inbreeding and presented a rule for maximizing the genetic response with a predefined rate of inbreeding. His algorithm can be used to put a constraint on the variance of the selection response by replacing the additive relationship matrix by the prediction error variance (W oolliams and M euwissen 1993). W ei (1995a) developed a restricted phenotypic selection by considering limits on the number of individuals that will be selected from a family or on the family number selected. This less sophisticated method balances response and inbreeding. A restriction on the family number may lead to an increased response (but a decreased effective size), whereas restricting the proportion of selected individuals from a family is an efficient way to control the inbreeding (decreased response). W ei (1995b) generalized the method by introducing both restrictions. In this study, rates of response were compared under between-family, within-family, or both restrictions for a two-trait selection index in a short-term experiment with Tribolium.     

The genetic diversity and structure of 18 sheep breeds exposed to isolation and selection

The phylogenetic layout of the genotyped (30 microsatellite) 18 sheep breeds in this study demands and provides the opportunity to evaluate both neutral and adaptive components of genetic diversity in a naturally and artificially selected and subdivided sheep population. Seven Pramenka strains from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia characterized by a very low intensity of artificial selection, preserved the highest neutral genetic variability. Eight central and north‐western European breeds under considerable artificial isolation and selection preserved the lowest genetic variability. Only combinations of various phylogenetic parameters offer a reasonable explanation for underlying evolutionary forces working in the investigated island and mainland sheep breeds under variable natural and artificial selection. More than 60% of total genetic, diversity was allocated to virtually unselected Pramenka strains, and an additional 25% to native moderately selected Graue Gehoernte Heidschnucke and intensively selected Ostfriesische Milchschafe. Some economically very important breeds and strains did not contribute to a pool with maximal genetic diversity, while they play an important role in the cultural heritage of respective countries.     

Estimation of accuracies and expected genetic change from selection for selection indexes that use multiple‐trait predictions of breeding values

Procedures are described for estimating selection index accuracies for individual animals and expected genetic change from selection for the general case where indexes of EBVs predict an aggregate breeding objective of traits that may or may not have been measured. Index accuracies for the breeding objective are shown to take an important general form, being able to be expressed as the product of the accuracy of the index function of true breeding values and the accuracy with which that function predicts the breeding objective. When the accuracies of the individual EBVs of the index are known, prediction error variances (PEVs) and covariances (PECs) for the EBVs within animal are able to be well approximated, and index accuracies and expected genetic change from selection estimated with high accuracy. The procedures are suited to routine use in estimating index accuracies in genetic evaluation, and for providing important information, without additional modelling, on the directions in which a population will move under selection.     

A comparison of restricted selection procedures to control genetic gains

Using Monte Carlo simulation, two schemes of restricted selection were compared under various combinations of genetic parameters and constraints on the genetic gains. The first selection scheme is the combination of best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) evaluation and linear programming technique (BLUP + LP), and the second one is based on the restricted BLUP selection (RBLUP). Selection for two traits was supposed, in which animals were selected to maximize the genetic gain in trait 2 (Δg₂) under a proportional restriction on the genetic gain in trait 1 (Δg₁) to satisfy the intended ratio (Δg₁:Δg₂). Little differences were found between the two selection schemes with respect to the genetic gains averaged over replicates. However, in all the cases studied, the variance of genetic gains among replicates under BLUP + LP selection was smaller and less sensitive to the genetic parameters and the intended restriction than RBLUP selection. Under the situations of antagonistic selection, the difference tended to be larger. When the heritabilities of the two traits were different, RBLUP selection remarkably increased the variance of genetic gain in a trait with a higher heritability. These results suggest that BLUP + LP selection should always be preferable to RBLUP selection because of the smaller risk of selection. This choice is especially important for the situation where the genetic parameters act as limiting factors for the achievement of intended genetic gains.     

The effects of pregnant mare serum gonadotropin on follicular development, mating and pregnancy in mink

Forty-four female ranch mink, maintained out-of-doors under standard conditions, were exposed to natural photoperiod supplemented with a period of artificial light from approximately 2300 hr to 0300 hr from early January to mid February. Breeding was initiated on March 1. After repeated attempts to breed the animals, it was determined that the likelihood of their breeding was very low, presumably due to the artificial and asynchronous long-day photoperiod. In an attempt to induce breeding, the mink were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups: saline, 25 International Units (IU) PMSG, 37.5 IU PMSG and 50 IU PMSG. Significantly different (p<0.05) patterns of breeding success were observed following PMSG treatment. Approximately 90% of the 37.5 and 50 IU PMSG-treated females bred while only 30 to 50% of the females in the saline and 25 IU PMSG-treated groups bred. More importantly, there was a marked difference in successful pregnancies observed between the saline- and PMSG-treated animals. None of the saline-treated females bore offspring while 40% of the animals that were treated with PMSG gave birth, with litter size averaging between 4 and 5 kits per female. Histological evaluation of ovaries obtained from an additional 13 animals treated in a similar fashion demonstrated that PMSG treatment significantly increased the number of small follicles. These results demonstrate that the exogenous administration of PMSG has a potential application in increasing the reproductive efficiency of female mink with functional ovarian tissue yet rendered infertile due to other factors.     

The effect of divergent selection for uterine capacity on fetal and placental development at term in rabbits: maternal and embryonic genetic effects

The aim of this work was to study the effects of the genotype of the dam, the embryo, or their interactions on prenatal growth by performing double-reciprocal embryo transfers between two lines of rabbits divergently selected for uterine capacity. Females from high (n = 53) and low (n = 48) lines were slaughtered at 72 h of gestation, and recovered embryos were transferred to the oviducts of recipient does from the high (n = 23) and low (n = 19) lines. Each recipient doe received eight embryos from the high line into one oviduct and eight embryos from the low line into the other. Recipient does were slaughtered on d 28 of gestation. The percentages of live fetuses at 28 d of gestation were 89.2 and 74% for high and low recipient lines, respectively. Length and weight of the empty uterine horn and weight of the full uterine horn were not affected by either the recipient or by donor line. Fetal weight was affected by the recipient line but not by the donor line. Fetuses gestated in high recipient does were 7% heavier (P < 0.10) than those in the low recipient does. There was a donor and a donor x recipient interaction effect on fetal placental weight. Fetal placental weight was heavier (7%, P < 0.01) for embryos from the low line. Embryos from the high line gestated in low-line uteri showed a lower fetal placenta weight than did low-line embryos gestated in high-line uteri and low-line uteri (P < 0.05). Linear regression coefficients of fetal weight at term on fetal placental weights differed (P < 0.05) for the high and low donors (4.33 +/- 0.28 and 3.41 +/- 0.29 respectively). A significant effect of the donor genotype on individual placental length was observed (P < 0.05), which might have resulted from a smaller individual placental length of low-line embryos gestated high-line uteri (P < 0.10). Neither donor nor recipient lines affected maternal placental weight or available space for fetuses. Fetuses and their fetal placentae were heavier when receiving more than four blood vessels than when receiving less than three blood vessels (13 and 17% respectively, P < 0.05). Neither recipient nor donor genotype affected the number of blood vessels arriving at each live fetus. Thus, fetal weight depends on the maternal genotype, whereas fetal placental weight depends on the embryo genotype in these two lines of rabbits divergently selected for uterine capacity.