Improving smallholder cattle reproductive efficiency in Cambodia to address expanding regional beef demand

This study aimed to identify factors associated with cattle reproductive output in rural smallholder farms in Cambodia in order to determine the main causes of reproductive failure and design efficient interventions for improvement. The majority of the nation’s beef is produced on smallholder farms where productivity is constrained by poor animal reproductivity reflected in the recent livestock population decline of approximately 13 % from 2009 to 2013. Farmers (n?=?240) from 16 villages from five provinces were surveyed in mid-2015 to determine their baseline knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) associated with cattle reproduction. In addition, 16 case studies from three of these provinces were conducted to provide a more detailed assessment of current cattle reproductive husbandry practices. In order to assess the reproductive impact of previously implemented interventions, an endpoint KAP survey and longitudinal health and husbandry study from three Cambodian provinces conducted between 2008 and 2013 were also analysed. Three multivariable prediction models (two KAP and one longitudinal) identified the following significant factors associated with the reproductive outcomes ‘number of calves born’ or probability that cows ‘gave birth’: target feeding (P?=?0.074), growing vegetables (P?=?0.005), attitudes towards cattle vaccination (P?=?0.010), improving bull selection (P?=?0.032), local breed use (P?=?0.005), number of joining attempts (P?<?0.001), discontinuation of animal draught practices (P?=?0.003) and retention of breeding animals (P?<?0.001). The identification of significant factors and interventions in this study has led to intervention recommendations that can potentially improve reproductive efficiency, combat the declining cattle population and improve smallholder capacity to supply to expanding regional meat demand in South-East Asia and China.     

Livestock and livelihoods of smallholder cattle-owning households in Cambodia: the contribution of on-farm and off-farm activities to income and food security

The majority of smallholder farming households in Cambodia are rurally based and rely on agriculture to support their livelihoods. However, in recent years, growth in the agriculture sector has stagnated with farmers facing several challenges including declining prices for traditional crops and irregular rainfall patterns. This has led to a need for farmers to diversify income sources with livestock promoted as a more viable livelihood activity, particularly the raising of cattle and poultry. However, uncertain profitability of livestock activities is a common perception by smallholders, especially where animals have not been traditionally viewed as a primary income source. To address this, information is required which compares the income and expenses associated with livestock raising to other on-farm activities and off-farm sources. This study reports on a survey of livelihood survey of 17 male and 21 female representatives of 20 households owning cattle in Cambodia, comparing the associated income and expenses of the various livelihood activities in the 12-month period from January to December 2016. Combined total household income from both on-farm and off-farm sources ranged from USD875 to 17730 with an average of USD6779, representing 51% and 49% from on-farm and off-farm activities, respectively. Cattle raising was the most common source of on-farm income (85%), contributing USD1064 and representing 22% of total household income. General household expenses, such as food and transportation (including expenses associated with off-farm employment), represented the majority of total household expenses (79%). Gross profit calculations indicated higher values for pig raising (USD1841.79), cattle (USD950.80) and non-rice crops (USD884) whilst the highest gross margin value was recorded for cattle (89.33%) followed by vegetables (85.27%) and non-rice crops (83.08%). Whilst wet season and dry season rice returned a negative gross profit value of USD197.27 and USD90.60 on average per household, respectively, both were ranked as most important for household consumption, followed by poultry, providing the main source of energy (rice) and protein (chicken meat) and sustaining household food requirements. The study concludes that although smallholder cattle-owning households in Cambodia undertake a diverse range of on-farm activities, as cattle raising provides a superior income source due to higher returns and lower variable costs, it could be promoted as a preferred livelihood activity by agencies conducting rural extension activities. Although consideration of available labour and monetary funds to invest in cattle raising is required, it was observed that income from off-farm sources may prove beneficial in providing the additional monetary funds to support cattle-raising activities and assist in providing generally poor smallholder households with enhanced economic resilience.     

Micro-livestock in smallholder farming systems: the role,challenges and opportunities for cavies in South Kivu,eastern DR Congo

Tropical Animal Health and Production - Livestock play multiple roles for smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. Mixed crop-livestock systems are common in South Kivu, eastern DR Congo, but...     

Farm and socio-economic characteristics of smallholder milk producers and their influence on technology adoption in Central Mexico

In order to identify the factors influencing adoption of technologies promoted by government to small-scale dairy farmers in the highlands of central Mexico, a field survey was conducted. A total of 115 farmers were grouped through cluster analysis (CA) and divided into three wealth status categories (high, medium and low) using wealth ranking. Chi-square analysis was used to examine the association of wealth status with technology adoption. Four groups of farms were differentiated in terms of farms' dimensions, farmers' education, sources of incomes, wealth status, management of herd, monetary support by government and technological availability. Statistical differences (p < 0.05) were observed in the milk yield per herd per year among groups. Government organizations (GO) participated little in the promotion of the 17 technologies identified, six of which focused on crop or forage production and 11 of which were related to animal husbandry. Relatives and other farmers played an important role in knowledge diffusion and technology adoption. Although wealth status had a significant association (p < 0.05) with adoption, other factors including importance of the technology to farmers, usefulness and productive benefits of innovations together with farmers' knowledge of them, were important. It is concluded that the analysis of the information per group and wealth status was useful to identify suitable crop or forage related and animal husbandry technologies per group and wealth status of farmers. Therefore the characterizations of farmers could provide a useful starting point for the design and delivery of more appropriate and effective extension.     

Survivability and causes of loss of broody-hen chicks on smallholder households in Bangladesh

We determined the flock sizes and rates of loss caused by different factors in broody-hen chicks (BHC) up to 60 days of age on 600 randomly selected smallholdings in Bangladesh. The smallholders were beneficiaries of a village poultry production chain called ‘Smallholder Livestock Development Project-2’ (SLDP-2) which was undertaken with the financial assistance of the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA). For estimating survival time of BHC, we observed chicks in 80 smallholdings. SLDP-2 aims at ameliorating poverty among women by poultry rearing at village level; in total, 104,000 key rearers, constituting 96% of all of the beneficiaries of the SLDP-2 area, were enrolled in 26 upazilas (a lower administrative unit of Bangladesh). A key rearer is a smallholder who rears at least five ‘Sonali’ (RIR × Fayoumi) and some indigenous (desi) chickens in a semi-scavenging system. Sonali chickens are supplied from the development project, and have higher egg production while the broodiness of the desi hens is exploited to get chicks hatched for future stocks; thus, the chicks hatched and reared to 60 days old at key rearers’ households are called BHC. In this study 32% of the smallholders had BHC each month. At the beginning of a month, the median number of chicks in a flock was 8, and the mean survival time was 50.5 days. Incidence rates of loss of BHC from disease, predation, selling and slaughtering were 0.102, 0.086, 0.009 and 0.002 per chick-month at risk, respectively. The major predators were crows, mongooses and eagles with incidence rates of loss being 0.018, 0.016 and 0.010 per chick-month at risk, respectively. Colibacillosis (both single and mixed infections) contributed to the death of 21% of dead BHC collected; Newcastle disease and salmonellosis contributed to the next highest (14 and 12%) proportional mortalities.     

Challenges and opportunities for smallholder livestock production in post-conflict South Kivu, eastern DR Congo

A survey on smallholder livestock production with emphasis on monogastric animals was conducted in 20 villages of seven so-called 'groupements' of South Kivu province in DR Congo, situated along a north to south-west axis with the town of Bukavu in the center. This land adjacent to Lake Kivu is located at elevations ranging around 900- 1900 m asl, experiencing tropical highland climate. A diagnostic survey helped to rapidly obtain in-depth knowledge of constraints and opportunities in this environment. Correspondence analysis and multiple regression analysis were used to investigate the association of production constraints with particular livestock species and to understand the factors that govern the number of livestock that people owned (converted to tropical livestock units [TLU]), respectively. Responses of 112 informants demonstrated that livestock is an integral part of the region's mixed farming systems. Low livestock numbers per household at present reflect the poverty as a consequence of recent violent conflicts. Currently, farmers focus on small livestock, like poultry, swine, cavies (i.e., Guinea pigs) and rabbits. Families keep livestock to accumulate household reserves that are strongly invested in children's education. Major issues of animal husbandry were related to animal diseases and lack of feed resources, particularly in the dry season. Lack of feed or forages were unrelated to a particular livestock species. Livestock holdings depended on animal diversity, location, land size available and respondents' education level. The potential introduction of improved forages is challenged by their dry-season tolerance, compatibility with cropping on small farms; and people's readiness to cultivate forages.     

Impact of forage diversity on forage productivity,nutritive value,beef cattle performance,and enteric methane emissions

Greenhouse gas emissions from the beef industry are largely attributed to the grazing sector, specifically from beef cattle enteric methane emissions. Therefore, the study objective was to examine how forage diversity impacts forage productivity, nutritive value, animal performance, and enteric methane emissions. This study occurred over three consecutive grazing seasons (2018 to 2020) and compared two common Midwest grazing mixtures: 1) a simple, 50:50 alfalfa:orchardgrass mixture (SIMP) and 2) a botanically diverse, cool-season species mixture (COMP). Fifty-six steers and heifers were adapted to an Automated Head Chamber System (AHCS) each year (C-Lock Inc., Rapid City, SD) and stratified into treatment groups based on acclimation visitation. Each treatment consisted of four pastures, three 3.2-ha and one 1.6-ha, with eight and four animals each, respectively. Forage production was measured biweekly in pre- and postgrazed paddocks, and forage nutritive value was analyzed using near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Shrunk body weights were taken monthly to determine animal performance. Forage availability did not differ between treatments (P = 0.69) but tended lower in 2018 (P = 0.06; 2.40 t dry matter ha⁻¹) than 2019 (2.92 t dry matter ha⁻¹) and 2020 (P = 0.10; 2.81 t dry matter ha⁻¹). Crude protein was significantly lower for COMP in 2018 compared with SIMP. Forage acid detergent fiber content was significantly lower for the COMP mixture (P = 0.02). The COMP treatment resulted higher dry matter digestibility (IVDMD48) in 2018 and 2019 compared with the SIMP treatment (P < 0.01). Animal performance did not differ between treatments (P > 0.50). There was a tendency for the COMP treatment to have lower enteric CH₄ production on a g d⁻¹ basis (P = 0.06), but no difference was observed on an emission intensity basis (g CH₄ kg⁻¹ gain; P = 0.56). These results would indicate that adoption of the complex forage mixture would not result in improved forage productivity, animal performance, or reduced emission intensity compared with the simple forage mixture.     

Productivity of crossbred cattle on smallholder farms in Southern Malawi

Summary A 10-year set of dairy records from a smallholder dairy scheme in the Republic of Malawi was analysed. Environmental and breed effects on the reproductive and productive parameters were evaluated. Age at first calving for 110, 1/2 Friesian and 55, 3/4 Friesian cows were 36·7 and 40·1 months respectively; calving intervals based on 432 and 145 records were 488 and 482 days; total lactation yields on 554 and 227 records were 1,950 and 2,452 kg. Geographical area of operation, parity of cow, year and month of calving and their interactions did not exert a significant influence on reproductive traits but significantly influenced milk production traits. Deficiency in feed supplies was believed to be a possible cause of problems in reproductive performance.

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Productividad De Ganado Cruzado En Pequenas Granjas En El Sur De Malawi

Resumen Se analizan en este trabajo, un grupo de registros provenientes de pequeñas unidades lecheras en la Republica de Malawi. Se evaluaron los efectos de ambiente y raza, sobre los parámetros productivos y reproductivos. La edad a la primera parición de 110 vacas media sengre Friesian y de 55 vacas 3/4 Friesian, fue de respectivamente 36.7 y 40.1 meses; el intervalo entrepartos basado en 432 y 145 registros fue de 488 y 482 dias, respectivamente; la lactación total tomando 781 registros, fue de 1950 y 2452 kg. El área geográfica de operación, el número de pariciones, el año y el mes de parición y la interacción de estos factores, no tuvo influencia significativa sobre rasgos reproductivos. La penuria forrajera, fue considerada la causa principal de problemas en cuanto a la función reproductiva se refiere.

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Productivite Du Betail Croise Dans De Petites Fermes Du Sud Du Malawi

Résumé On a analysé les résultats laitiers d'une action de développement laitier de petites unités laitières en République du Malawi. Les effects de l'environnement et de la race sur les paramètres de reproduction et de productivité ont été évalués. L'âge au premier vélage, chez 110, 1/2 Frisonnes et 55, 3/4 Frisonnes vaches a été de 36,7 mois et 40,1 mois respectivement; l'intervalle interelage base sur 432 et 145 enregistrements a été de 488 et 482 jours; les rendements de lactation totale chez 781 enregistrements ont été de 1950 et 2452 kg. L'aire géographique de l'opération, la parité de la vache, l'année et le mois du vélage et leurs interactions n'excluent pas une influence significative sur les traits de reproduction, mais influent significativement les traits de production laitière. On suspecte une déficience dans la fourniture de la ration comme cause possible des problèmes de reproduction.

     

Investigating the financial impact of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome on smallholder pig farmers in Cambodia

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) was first identified in Cambodia in 2010, causing serious problems on affected farms, although the costs of the disease have not been well defined. The household financial impact of a PRRS outbreak in Cambodia was investigated using partial budget analysis, examining the economic benefit of three proposed interventions: (i) quarterly PRRS vaccine use, (ii) biosecurity implementation, and (iii) implementation of vaccination and biosecurity. The analyses were applied to three farm models: (i) a two-sow breeder; (ii) a five-pig fattener; and (iii) a single-sow, three-pig farrow-to-finish/breeder. Data was derived from a knowledge, attitude, and practice survey of 240 smallholder farmers (61 with pigs) from 16 villages across 5 provinces, plus case studies of 12 farmers selected for more detailed financial analysis. The study indicated that financial losses associated with PRRS were severe, with a 25% mean loss to the annual household income of 61 interviewed farmers. Partial budget analysis identified a strongly positive incentive for vaccination and biosecurity to be implemented in combination, with the highest annual net benefit of USD 357.10 realised by the breeder system. However, due to current scarcity of the PRRS vaccine and its high cost to smallholders, biosecurity interventions may be more cost-effective, especially for low PRRS incidence regions. It was concluded that PRRS critically constrains the profitability of smallholder pig farms and that these findings will assist development of village-level livestock disease risk management programmes that encourage adoption of vaccination and biosecurity practices to enhance farmer livelihoods in Cambodia.     

Development of a model to predict forage intake by grazing cattle

A mathematical model to predict daily DMI and account for effects of energy supplementation on forage intake has been developed in several stages. A previously evaluated dynamic rumen model for sheep was adopted as the fermentation component of the intake model. Intake was adjusted to reach a given level of DM fill, which is the sum of the concentrations of each of the dietary fractions within the rumen. Differential equations described the rate of change of each nutrient fraction. Genetic size scaling rules based on mature body size relationships were used to adjust rate and fill parameters of the intake model from sheep to beef cattle. Nutrient fractions were partitioned into those that flow at the particulate passage rate vs the fluid passage rate. Forty-two data points representing perennial ryegrass, wheat pasture and range grasses were used to parameterize and evaluate the model. The model was relatively sensitive to the coefficient relating DMI to particulate rate of passage, the rate constant for the use of the potentially degraded fiber fraction of the forage, and to the composition constants for the amount of carbohydrate and nitrogen in the microbial mass. Relative insensitivity was observed for starch and protein nutrient use rate constants, for the coefficient relating DMI to fluid passage rate, and for constants relating to the growth of the microbial mass in the rumen. Feed intake of grazing cattle may be predicted by mechanistic models describing various nutrients' contribution to ruminal fill.     

Investigation of a syndrome characterised by passage of red urine in smallholder dairy cattle in East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania

A case-control study was carried out to investigate a syndrome in smallholder dairy cattle in East Usambara Mountains characterised by urination of clotted blood. Smallholder dairy farms with the problem (cases) were matched with nearest farms without the problem (controls). In total, 30 farmers from Mbomole (19), Shebomeza (9) and Mlesa (2) villages in Amani division participated in the study. Using a structured questionnaire, information on risk factors associated with conditions characterised by passage of red urine in cattle was collected. In addition, serum samples from 80 smallholder dairy animals were collected and submitted for serodiagnosis of leptospirosis and babesiosis by microscopic agglutination test (MAT) and an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. Laboratory analysis showed that the seroprevalence of leptospirosis and babesiosis was 21.3% and 46.3%, respectively and there was no significant difference between'case' and 'control' farms (P > 0.05), hence the occurrence of urination of clotted blood syndrome in Amani was not explained. However, bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) was found to be ubiquitous in the area, and also found to be widespread in all areas used as sources of animal fodder Given the presence and distribution of bracken ferns and clinical signs and post-mortem lesions described by informants, chronic bracken-fern poisoning is more likely to be associated with the syndrome affecting animals in the study area. However, further investigation is required to confirm this observation so that appropriate control strategies can be devised.     

Influence of forage level on passage rate, digestibility and performance of cattle

Two trials (feedlot and metabolism) were conducted to evaluate the influence of level of chopped tall fescue hay (FH) in high concentrate diets on average daily gain (ADG), liquid and particulate passage rates, digestibility and in situ digestibility of corn. In the feedlot trial, 36 Hereford steers were fed diets containing 15, 30 and 50% FH in combination with 74, 59 and 39% whole shelled corn (WSC) and a soybean meal supplement. Steers offered 15, 30 and 50% FH consumed 9.0, 9.0 and 7.6 kg dry matter (DM) per d; gained 1.19, .89 and .67 kg; and had DM to gain ratios of 7.6, 10.1 and 11.5, respectively. A negative correlation was observed between fecal pH and ADG (r = -.52) and between fecal pH and fecal starch (r = -.40). In a 4 X 4 Latin-square trial, four cannulated steers were fed 4, 8, 16 or 24% FH in combination with 86, 82, 74 or 66% WSC and a soybean meal supplement. After 14 d of adaptation, steers were offered ytterbium (Yb)-labelled WSC and were ruminally pulse-dosed with chromium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (Cr-EDTA) on the first day of the collection period. Steers fed 4, 8, 16 or 24% FH had the following particulate passage rates: 2.3, 2.7, 2.7 and 2.9%/h from fecal analyses; 2.3, 1.7, 2.4 and 2.8%/h from ruminal analyses; 6.0, 5.3, 6.3 and 8.1%/h for liquid, respectively. With increasing FH level, liquid passage rate exhibited linear and quadratic effects (P less than .05), while particulate passage rate (rumen sampling) showed linear and cubic effects (P less than .05).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Sero-epidemiological investigation of bovine toxoplasmosis in traditional and smallholder cattle production systems of Tanga Region,Tanzania

In view of the worldwide importance of Toxoplasma gondii and the fragmented information on the seroprevalence of the disease in animals in Tanzania, a study, using the modified Eiken latex agglutination test (LAT), was conducted from May 2003 to January 2004 to determine the prevalence of antibody to T. gondii in 130 randomly selected farms comprising 655 cattle. The overall seroprevalence of T.gondii antibodies in cattle and farms were 3.6% and 13%, respectively. Risk factors for animal and herd-level toxoplasmosis seropositivity were tested using multivariable logistic regression to control for confounding factors. Cattle managed under traditional husbandry practises were more likely to be seropositive than those managed under smallholder practises (48% versus 4.7%; p < 0.01). Herd size of ≥ 9 cattle were at greater risk of acquiring infection than herds holding fewer animals [≤ 9 cattle], (odd ratio [OR] = 3.99; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.97–16.48; P = 0.001). We concluded that seroprevalence at herd level was high and relatively low at animal level, possibly due to the reduced susceptibility of cattle to T.gondii infection as compared to goats and sheep. The high seroprevalence in animals managed by traditional husbandry practise suggests that the parasite is widely distributed in the environment and could pose a public health threat to the people living in those areas.     

Opportunities and challenges for smallholder pig production systems in a mountainous region of Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, China

China’s small-scale pig keepers are the largest community of pork producers worldwide. About 56 % of the world's pigs originate from such systems, each producing 2–5 head per year. This study analyzes pig smallholders in Xishuangbanna, a prefecture of Yunnan Province. Categorical principal component analysis and two-step cluster analysis were used to identify three main production systems: livestock-corn-based (LB; 41 %), rubber based (RB; 39 %), and pig based (PB; 20 %) systems. RB farms earn high income from rubber and fatten cross-bred pigs, often using purchased feeds. PB farms own similar-sized rubber plantations and raise pigs, with fodder mainly being cultivated and collected in the forest. LB farms grow corn, rice, and tea while also raising pigs, fed with collected and cultivated fodder as well. About one third of pigs were marketed (LB, 20 %; RB, 42 %; PB, 25 %), and local pig meat is highly appreciated in the nearby town. High mortality, low reproductive performance, and widespread malnourishment are the systems' main constraints. Basic training in hygiene and reproduction management could significantly increase production; most effective measures would be counterbalancing seasonal malnourishment and exploration of locally available protein feeds. Through support by external expertise, farmers could more effectively trade their pigs at lucrative town markets.     

Impact of different wheat milling by-products in supplements on the forage use and performance of beef cattle consuming low-quality, tallgrass-prairie forage

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the impacts on forage use and beef cattle performance of incorporating divergent wheat milling by-products in a 30% CP supplement. The by-products were wheat bran (high fiber) and second clears (high starch). The by-products were added as 1) 100% wheat bran; 2) 67% wheat bran, 33% second clears; or 3) 33% wheat bran, 67% second clears to constitute approximately 47 to 49% of the supplement. In Exp. 1, 90 Hereford x Angus cows (BW = 554 kg) grazing winter, tallgrass-prairie range were fed the supplement treatments (2.27 kg/cow daily) from early December 1997 until calving (average calving date = 3/11/98). Cumulative BW and condition changes from trial initiation through calving were not significantly different among treatments. Similarly, significant treatment effects on cow pregnancy rates as well as calf birth weights, ADG, and ending weights were not evident. In Exp. 2, 16 ruminally fistulated Hereford x Angus steers (BW = 484 kg) were blocked by weight and assigned to one of the same three supplement treatments or to a negative control (forage only). Steers had ad libitum access to tallgrass-prairie hay (76.4% NDF, 3.1% CP) and were fed supplement at the same rate (relative to BW) as the cows in Exp. 1. Forage OM, NDF, and digestible OM intakes were lower (P < 0.01) for the negative control than for supplemented steers but were not significantly different among the supplemented steers. Digestion of OM was lower (P = 0.03) for the negative control than for supplemented steers, although significant treatment differences were not evident among the supplemented groups. Digestion of NDF was not affected (P = 0.49) by treatment. Within the context of the amount of supplemental protein offered, changes in the combination of wheat milling by-products in the supplement did not affect cow performance or intake and digestion of low-quality forage.     

International trade, animal health and veterinary epidemiology: challenges and opportunities

The link between international trade, animal health and epidemiology has been recognized for a long time and has taken an additional importance in the aftermath of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and of the inception of the World Trade Organization. The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures of the World Trade Organization demands that sanitary and phytosanitary measures be scientifically based, placing epidemiology at the center of decisions related animal health and trade. This paper analyses the interactions between international trade of animals (and animal products) and epidemiology with discussion on the inputs of epidemiology in surveillance, risk analysis and regionalization.