Plant parasitic nematodes and spatio-temporal variation in natural vegetation

In this paper, the possible role of plant parasitic nematodes as a driving force of change in natural vegetation is analysed using the succession at coastal foredunes as a model. In pot trials, when grown in natural substrates from mature stands, seedlings of dominant foredune plants showed poor growth when compared to sterilised substrates. In natural substrates from preceding stages, growth reduction was far less, or even non-significant. Chemical soil treatment with nematicides resulted in enhanced growth of the seedlings. Inoculation of ectoparasitic nematodes reduced plant growth, but only at densities much higher than those occurring in control pots with unsterilised field soil. Identification at species level showed that endoparasitic nematodes are specifically associated with particular plant species. Therefore, it is hypothesised that the distribution of endoparasitic nematodes may be an important factor leading to the specific nature of soil pathogen complexes in coastal foredunes. We discuss the role of endoparasitic nematodes as possible key species in soil communities and compare the possible effects of specific vs. generalistic plant parasitic nematodes in soil communities on vegetation processes.     

Effects of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on the diversity of culturable microfungi and nematodes associated with tomato: impact on root-knot disease and plant growth

The available information on Pseudomonas biocontrol inoculants on the non-target fungal and nematode community is scant. The current paper addresses this issue and investigates the effects of biocontrol agents Pseudomonas aeruginosa IE-6 and IE-6S⁺ (previously shown to suppress several soil-borne plant pathogens) on soil microfungi and plant-parasitic nematodes as well as on the root-knot development and growth of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Furadan, a granular nematicide was included as a treatment for comparative purposes. Treatments were applied to soil at the start of each 52-day-long tomato growth cycle, and their effects on the composition and diversity of rhizosphere and endophytic microfungi and plant-parasitic nematodes were examined at the end of first and fourth growth cycle. Several diversity indices were employed to assess community diversity. A total of 16 genera comprising 23 microfungal species were isolated from the tomato rhizosphere. The most abundant fungal species belonged to the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium. With a few exceptions, fungi were neither exclusively inhibited nor specifically promoted by the application of treatments at any of the growth cycles studied. However, Paecilomyces lilacinus, an egg and female parasite of root-knot nematode, though exclusively absent in the controls was isolated from the treatments. Both general diversity and equitability of rhizosphere microfungi were greater at first compared to the fourth growth cycle while species richness remained uninfluenced across the growth cycles and treatments. However, Furadan and IE-6S⁺ treatments considerably abated general diversity and equitability. Of the microfungal species isolated from the rhizosphere seven were also recovered from surface-sterilized root tissue of tomato suggesting that all the endophytes are primarily rhizosphere organisms. Diversity of endophytic fungi was consistently lower compared with that of the rhizosphere. Both general diversity and equitability declined in all three treatments relative to controls in the root tissue but species richness remained unaltered. Diversity and equitability of plant-parasitic nematodes in soil were reduced by all three treatments over the controls at fourth growth cycle whilst species richness did not change at either growth cycle. The biocontrol agents significantly reduced root-knot development and enhanced shoot growth of tomato over the controls. The possible implications of fungal composition and abundance because of biocontrol by Pseudomonas application are discussed.     

Host-parasite soil communities and environmental constraints: Modelling of soil functions involved in interactions between plant-parasitic nematodes and Pasteuria penetrans

Nematodes belonging to the genus Meloidogyne are the most ubiquitous and widespread plant-parasitic nematodes. They occur worldwide, are polyphagous and can parasitize most cultivated plants leading to reduced crop yields. They are especially harmful in developing countries because of the lack of suitable and feasible management strategies. Among all the control practices (chemicals, physical techniques, cultural practices, resistance), the use of natural enemies as biological control agents is the most recently developed. Pasteuria penetrans which is an obligate Gram-positive, endospore-forming bacterium, is perhaps the most promising plant-parasitic nematode biocontrol agent. Despite much research conducted on prey-predator interactions (host-parasite specificity, mechanisms of attachment, field efficacy), the influence of the soil environment on host-parasite interactions is poorly understood even when the soil appears to be the key factor. Beyond common studies on the influence of climatic conditions on the attachment of endospores of P. penetrans to nematodes, more knowledge about the systemic interactions between plants, soil water dynamics, soil texture and structure, and other biota on the parasitism of nematodes by P. penetrans would improve their utilization as biological control agents. The aim of this review is to analyze the literature dealing with the influence of the soil on nematode - P. penetrans interactions in order to suggest a helpful conceptual model based on partitioning the Pasteuria population in sub-populations according to their soil habitat (dispersible and non-dispersible aggregates, microporosity, macroporosity), not all of them being available for attachment and infection on nematodes. Such concerns should be taken into account by epidemiologists for improving biological management strategies based on the use of this bacterium.     

Influence of phytoparasitic nematodes on symbiotic N2 fixation in tropical herbaceous legume cover crops

 Populations of plant parasitic nematodes and their effects on symbiotic nitrogen (N) fixation in herbaceous legumes and on some selected characteristics of other plant species associated with such cover crops were studied. Two legume species [mucuna, Mucuna pruriens (L) DC. var. utilis (Wright) Bruck and lablab, Lablab purpureus L. Sweet], one grass/weed species [imperata, Imperata cylindrica (L.) Rauschel] and a cereal (maize, Zea mays L.) were used. There were three soil treatments (fumigation, fumigation plus inoculation with Meloidogyne species, and an untreated control). Plant parasitic nematode populations in soil, roots and nodules were determined at 4, 8 and 12 weeks after planting. The response of the phytoparasitic nematodes to soil treatments varied according to the plant species present. The predominant nematodes in soils, roots and nodules of legumes were of the genus Meloidogyne, whereas other genera of parasitic nematodes dominated the fauna in soils and roots of maize and imperata. Biomass yield of mucuna was not significantly affected by either Meloidogyne spp. or the other genera of phytoparasitic nematodes. In contrast, the dry matter yield of lablab measured at 12 weeks was reduced by 16% in inoculated compared with fumigated soils. Similarly, the biomass yields of maize and imperata were reduced by 10% and 29%, respectively, in unfumigated rather than fumigated soils. The amounts of N accumulated in mucuna, maize and imperata were not significantly affected by the two groups of plant parasitic nematodes. However, at 12 weeks, lablab grown on inoculated soils accumulated only 69% of the N found in plants grown on fumigated soils. Inoculation of soil with Meloidogyne spp. significantly increased the number of nodules on lablab roots compared with the non-inoculated treatments, whereas nodulation in mucuna was not affected by soil treatment. After 12 weeks, the quantity of N₂ derived from symbiotic fixation in mucuna was not significantly affected by soil treatments whereas the amount of fixed N in lablab was 32% lower in inoculated than in fumigated soils. Possible mechanisms for the non-suppressive effect of plant parasitic nematodes on mucuna are discussed. Received: 12 March 1999     

Effects of four organic amendments on banana parasitic nematodes and soil nematode communities

Plant–parasitic nematodes are injurious crop pests that have been managed mainly by chemical nematicides. However, safe and alternative methods such as those based on organic materials need to be developed. Our study has evaluated (i) the effects of four organic amendments with different biochemical compositions that are abundantly produced in the study area (Guadeloupe, French West Indies) on soil nematode communities and (ii) some of the suppression mechanisms of banana parasitic nematodes, especially those involving the soil food web. This study is based on a microcosm experiment comparing sugarcane bagasse, sugarcane sludge, plant residues and sewage sludge. All amendments except sewage sludge decreased the root abundances of plant–parasitic nematodes, by 96% in the case of sugarcane bagasse. For this treatment, soil densities of carnivorous nematodes were six times higher than the treatments without organic amendment. Plant residues and bagasse were mainly composed of materials that are difficult to decompose, namely cellulose and lignins. These organic materials favored a fungal decomposition pathway and permitted development of carnivorous nematode populations and increased the Channel Index (CI). Pratylenchus coffeae control after sugarcane refinery sludge application remains unexplained. Lastly, sewage sludge, composed mainly of easily degradable compounds, did not permit nematode control, and only bacterivorous nematode populations were enhanced by this treatment.     

红壤翻压绿肥对烟草农艺性状及线虫危害的影响

通过2种化肥用量、5种翻压绿肥量组成的10个处理田间小区试验,研究云南红壤翻压绿肥量对烟草农艺性状及线虫危害的影响。结果表明,烟草叶片大小、株高、茎粗与翻压绿肥量呈显著或极显著正相关;烟草采收末期,红壤寄生性线虫和非寄生性线虫数量随着翻压绿肥数量的增加而趋于增加,烟草根结线虫危害级别与翻压绿肥量呈极显著负相关。因此,翻压绿肥改善了烟草养分供给,促进了烟草生长,增强了烟草抗御线虫危害的能力,对烟草根结线虫危害起到了防治作用。生产上通常翻压绿肥15 000 kg/hm2,以达优质适产。     

Effect of plant parasitic nematodes on the sustainability of a natural fallow cultural system in the Sudano-Sahelian area in Senegal

To study the influence of fallow on plant parasitic nematodes and soil fertility, the difference in the growth of millet in a greenhouse was compared in sterilized and naturally infested soil. These soils are ferruginous and were taken from a 17-year-old fallow plot and a neighbouring cultivated field, located in the region of Thysse Kaymor in Senegal. The plant-parasitic nematode community of the previously cultivated soil consisted primarily of two species: an ectoparasite, Tylenchorhynchus gladiolatus, and an endoparasite, Scutellonema cavenessi. The soil from the fallow plot was infested with many species, but under the influence of the millet crop, it evolved towards the two species situation observed in the cultivated soil, except that under the experimental conditions (in pots), Pratylenchus pseudopratensis replaced S. cavenessi. Whether or not the soil was infested with nematodes, the previous fallow period had a positive effect on the development of successive millet crops. The impoverishment of the soil through repeated cultivation and the impact of nematodes both reduced crop growth. The two factors evolved in the same way, that is a decrease in the development rate of the millet as the number of crop cycles increased. The symptoms of soil impoverishment can be corrected, either by suppressing the nematodes or by fallowing.     

RNA干扰技术在植物寄生线虫中的应用

已证实在植物寄生线虫中存在RNA干扰(RNAi)现象,当寄生前的线虫幼虫或卵吸取能激发系统RNA干扰反应的双链RNA后,能诱导特定类型细胞中的基因表达沉默。RNAi将成为基因组范围内鉴定基因功能的有力工具,可以帮助更好地了解植物寄生线虫。最近的研究描述了RNAi技术在植物寄生线虫中的作用机制、途径、表现型的决定、专化性和持久性等。研究进展表明,植物双链RNA表达靶定的线虫基因能够成功地诱导线虫基因沉默。     

定殖烟草根结线虫卵和雌虫机会真菌的多样性

机会真菌对根结线虫的生物防治具有巨大潜力。本研究于2010—2011年针对来源于中国7个省份的156份烟草根结线虫样本,分别分离根结线虫游离卵、卵块和雌虫上定殖的机会真菌。应用18S rDNA-ITS片段测序结果结合菌株的形态学观察和培养性状鉴定定殖游离卵、卵块和雌虫上的真菌。根据分离到菌株的培养性状、形态学和rDNA-ITS序列分析,对定殖于南方根结线虫或北方根结线虫的9 839个游离卵、408个卵块和284个雌虫的真菌菌株,明确鉴定出9属13个种,其中定殖根结线虫新记录种5个,即长梗木霉、芬芳镰刀菌、渐狭蜡蚧菌、虫草棒束孢和交枝顶孢。淡紫紫孢菌Purpureocillium lilacinum(原名:淡紫拟青霉)为优势种,分布广泛,在云南、安徽、湖北、贵州和山东省均被分离到。该菌在南方根结线虫和北方根结线虫的游离卵、卵块和雌虫平均分离率分别为0.49%、24.00%和16.90%,说明其地理和生态适应性广泛。不同地区来源的烟草根结线虫卵和雌虫上定殖的机会真菌种类存在明显差异。目前尚无渐狭蜡蚧菌和虫草棒束孢作为线虫病原物的报道,有待于进一步深入研究其对根结线虫的致病性。     

Multiple species-specific controls of root-feeding nematodes in natural soils

One of the major limitations to enhance sustainability of crop production systems is the inability to control root-feeding nematodes without using chemical biocides. In soils under wild vegetation, however, root-feeding nematodes affect plant performance and plant community composition varying from substantially to insignificantly. Previous studies in natural ecosystems have already shown that mutualistic symbionts, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and endophytes, may influence plant exposure to root-feeding nematodes. In order to learn more from natural systems, we examined nematode control in the root zone of a wild coastal foredune grass by microorganisms, other nematodes and microarthropods. We cultured all eight root-feeding nematode species that occur in the root zone of marram grass (Ammophila arenaria) in coastal foredunes of the Netherlands. Then, in an indoor growth experiment we exposed each nematode species to the potential natural antagonists collected from the same dune soil. Most of the eight dominant root-feeding nematode species could be controlled to some extent by more than one group of soil organisms added. The effectiveness of control varied among nematode species, which seemed to be controlled in a species-specific way. We conclude that in a natural soil the effectiveness of control by microorganisms, other nematodes or microarthropods varies among root-feeding nematode species. Most are controlled, at least to some extent, by soil microbes. However, some root-feeding nematode species are controlled only by microarthropods. Our results strongly suggest that sustainable agriculture will benefit from using a range of biological control mechanisms when controlling root-feeding nematodes, rather than relying on single control agents. Our suggestion also implies that conserving soil biodiversity is crucial in order to enhance the reliability of biological crop protection against soil-borne pests and diseases.     

Population dynamics and interactions between plant parasitic and non-parasitic nematodes: An empirical analysis

Non-linear regression models were used to estimate the effect of own and other taxa previous population levels, nitrogen application, and crop rotation on population dynamics of Mononchidae, Dorylaimidae, microbivorous (Rhabditidae), lance (Hoplolaimus galeatus), spiral (Helicotylencus dihystera), stubby root (Paratrichodorus minor), lesion (Pratylenchus zeae), and cotton root-knot (Meloigogyne incognita) nematodes using data from the Cullars rotation, which is the oldest soil fertility experiment in the Southern United States. Because field experimental data was used, a spatial component was included as populations in one plot were proved to be related to the population level of their neighbors. Own previous levels were found to be very important for all eight groups of nematodes (all groups’ current population relied heavily on its own previous population value) and all the groups had an interaction effect with at least one other group. Lesion and cotton root-knot nematodes were found to be competitive while Mononchidae, Dorylaimidae, microbivorous and lance nematodes were non-competitive. All the populations showed high seasonality patterns having lower populations during winter, to then remain steady until September–October when there is a significant increase in the population of cotton root-knot, Dorylaimidae, microbivorous, and lesion nematodes. Nitrogen had a positive effect on Mononchidae, microbivorous, spiral, and cotton root-knot nematodes. The use of clover after cotton in the rotation crop program proved to be significantly better in reducing plant parasitic nematodes compared to other treatments.     

Responses of root-feeding nematodes (Helicotylenchus spp.) to local and non-local populations of the host plant Ammophila arenaria

The root-feeding nematode community of wild plants may vary throughout their natural range. Little is known about how the variation of wild plants along their range affects their relationship with root-feeding nematodes. In the present study, we examined local and non-local combinations of host plants and root-feeding nematodes to test the hypothesis that nematode reproduction is favoured by local hosts. In two indoor experiments, we exposed populations of the wild dune grass Ammophila arenaria from northern and southern European coastal sand dunes to plant parasitic nematode species (Helicotylenchus spp.) from those same geographical origins. First, we used the southern nematode species to determine whether the effect of a local versus a non-local host may depend on nematode density. Then, in a cross-inoculation experiment we investigated how both nematode species performed with their local, as compared to the non-local hosts.

In both experiments, plant biomass and ontogenetic characteristics were not significantly different between the northern and southern populations. The applied nematode densities did not have a negative impact on plant performance. This allowed us to consider the response of the two different nematode species and their host plants without co-varying differences in plant responses. Reproduction of the nematode species differed according to host origin, but contrary to what we expected, nematode species did not perform better on their local hosts. Helicotylenchus n. sp., the southern species originating from Portugal, performed better on the non-local than on the local host. Male to female ratios were significantly different between the two nematode populations and were lowest in Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus from The Netherlands. Female and juveniles percentages were also quite distinct, with more females in the nematode species from The Netherlands and more juveniles in the nematode species from Portugal.

We concluded that ectoparasitic root-feeding nematodes Helicotylenchus spp. do not necessarily perform best on their local host population of the foredune grass A. arenaria. Our results imply that the natural distribution of Helicotylenchus spp. along the European coast is determined by other factors than host populations. These other factors that could be abiotic, e.g. water availability, or biotic, e.g. local natural enemies adapted to Helicotylenchus spp. Introducing plant genotypes from other parts of the natural range will, therefore, not necessarily lead to reduced abundance of semi-endo or ectoparasitic root-feeding nematodes.     

Soil feedback effects to the foredune grass Ammophila arenaria by endoparasitic root-feeding nematodes and whole soil communities

In coastal foredunes, the grass Ammophila arenaria develops a soil community that contributes to die-back and replacement by later successional plant species. Root-feeding nematodes and pathogenic soil microorganisms are involved in this negative feedback. Regular burial by wind-blown beach sand results in vigorous growth of A. arenaria, probably because of enabling a temporary escape from negative soil feedback. Here, we examine the role of root-feeding nematodes as compared to the whole soil community in causing negative feedback to A. arenaria. We performed a 3-year sand burial experiment in the field and every year we determined the feedback of different soil communities to plant growth in growth chamber bioassays.In the field, we established A. arenaria in tubes with beach sand, added three endoparasitic root-feeding nematode species (Meloidogyne maritima, Heterodera arenaria and Pratylenchus penetrans) or root zone soil to the plants, and created series of ceased and continued sand burial. During three subsequent years, plant biomass was measured and numbers of nematodes were counted. Every year, bioassays were performed with the field soils and biomass of seed-grown A. arenaria plants was measured to determine the strength of feedback of the established soil communities to the plant.In the field, addition of root zone soil had a negative effect on biomass of buried plants. In the bioassays, addition of root zone soil also reduced the biomass of newly planted seedlings, however, only in the case when the field plants had not been buried with beach sand. Addition of the three endoparasitic root-feeding nematodes did not influence plant biomass in the field and in the bioassays. Our results strongly suggest that the negative feedback to A. arenaria is not due to the combination of the three endoparasitic nematodes, but to other components in the soil community, or their interactions with the nematodes.     

Colonization of chemical factory wastes by soil nematodes

Soil nematodes were studied in 39- and 49-year-old “red” dumps mainly composed of Fe₂O₃ waste pyrite remnants from production of sulphuric and other acids, and in a 84-year-old “white” dump mainly composed of CaCO₃ material from soda production. The youngest stage of spontaneous biological succession contained moss–lichen patches which were mainly inhabited by bacterivorous nematodes (Acrobeloides nanus, Panagrolaimus rigidus, Rhabditis terricola, Bursilla monhystera) in very low abundance (about 50×10³ ind m⁻²). Invasion of grass resulted in increase of bacterivorous nematodes up to several millions  ind m⁻² but with considerable seasonal fluctuations. Nematode assemblages diversified in sites colonized by various deciduous trees and Paratylenchus straeleni was the dominant plant parasitic nematode. In site with stabilized grass carpet on the “white” dump dominant nematodes were Geocenamus quadrifer and Pungentus engadinensis. Eudorylaimus spp. first appeared in 49-year-old dump but their populations remained very low (1–9×10³ ind m⁻²). Some species found in control deciduous forests on natural soils (e.g. Xenocriconemella macrodora, Cephalenchus hexalineatus, Tylolaimophorus minor, Ogma menzeli, Hoplotylus femina) did not colonize deposits. Natural succession of nematodes on chemical waste materials was very slow and even after about 80 years their communities under deciduous trees showed many differences from those in nearby semi-natural mixed forests.     

丛枝菌根与植物寄生性线虫相互作用及抗性机制

丛枝菌根真菌(arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,AMF)能够与大多数陆地植物互惠共生,促进植物对养分的吸收,提高植物对各种生物和非生物胁迫的抗逆性,对植物健康生长有重要的作用。在土壤中丛枝菌根真菌与植物寄生性线虫共同依靠寄主植物根系完成生命循环,但二者对寄主植物作用完全相反,引起研究者广泛兴趣,成为菌根研究的热点和焦点之一。本文分析了丛植菌根真菌与植物寄生线虫的相互作用,并探讨了菌根提高植物对线虫抗性的可能机制:菌根真菌改善植物的生长和营养状况、改变植物根系形态结构、影响根系分泌物和根际微生物区系、诱导寄主植物产生防御反应等,旨在深入挖掘丛枝菌根真菌的生物学功能,进一步发挥其在农业生产中的应用潜力。     

Microcosm experiments on the development of different plant parasitic nematode fauna in two soils from the Soudanese-Sahelian zone of West Africa

To test the hypothesis that the structure of plant parasitic nematode communities is affected by soil characteristics, experiments were conducted in a greenhouse with two soils with different physical and chemical characteristics and land management histories (fallow and a cultivated field) from adjacent plots. The cultivated soil was more sandy and had lower organic matter and nutrient contents than the fallow soil. Four nematode assemblages of Scutellonema cavenessi, Helicotylenchus dihystera and Tylenchorhynchus gladiolatus were inoculated in the soils. The pot experiment was conducted on millet during 2 months. Multiplication rates of H. dihystera were not significantly different in the two soils. T. gladiolatus had a lower multiplication rate in the fine-textured soil. S. cavenessi seemed to reproduce better in the coarse-textured soil when inoculated in low density with H. dihystera. The presence of plant parasitic nematodes in the cultivated soil caused a significant decrease of millet biomass, whereas plants in the fallow soil were less sensitive to nematode damage and were only affected when the soil was inoculated with T. gladiolatus alone. This experiment did not explain the distribution of plant parasitic species observed in the field. However, parameters other than the presence of a favourable host plant and micro-climatic conditions were found to induce differences in the reproductive rates of several species of plant parasitic nematodes. Received: 14 January 1996     

Non-streptomycete actinomycetes as biocontrol agents of soil-borne fungal plant pathogens and as plant growth promoters

Among soil microorganisms, bacteria and fungi and to a lesser extent actinomycetes, have received considerable attention as biocontrol agents of soil-borne fungal plant pathogens and as plant growth promoters. Within actinomycetes, Streptomyces spp. have been investigated predominantly, mainly because of their dominance on, and the ease of isolation from, dilution plates and because of the commercial interest shown on the antibiotics produced by certain Streptomyces spp. Many of non-streptomycete actinomycetes (NSA) taxa are therefore rarely reported in literature dealing with routine isolations of biocontrol agents and/or plant growth promoters from plant and soil. It is clear that special isolation methods need to be employed in routine isolations to selectively isolate NSA. Some interesting information exists, albeit in relatively few reports compared to that on other microorganisms, on the biological activities of NSA, especially in relation to their mechanisms of action in the biological control of soil-borne fungal plant pathogens and plant growth promotion. This review presents an overview of this information and seeks to encourage further investigations into what may be considered a relatively unexplored area of research. Certain soil environmental factors, especially in horticultural systems, could be manipulated to render the soil conducive for the biological activities of NSA. A variety of NSA isolated by selective methods have not only shown to be rhizosphere competent but also adapted for an endophytic life in root cortices. Some of the NSA, including endophytic strains that have shown potential to suppress soil-borne fungal plant pathogens, are able to employ one or more mechanisms of antagonism including antibiosis, hyperparasitism and the production of cell-wall degrading enzymes. Strains of NSA promote plant growth by producing plant growth regulators. Enhancement of plant growth by the antagonists are considered to help the host by producing compensatory roots that mask the impact of root diseases.     

Status of Biological Control of Plant Diseases with Composts

? Composts have the potential to provide biological control of plant diseases. Foliar as well as root pathogens may be affected. Many factors control these effects. Heat exposure during composting kills or inactivates pathogens if the process is monitored properly. Unfortunately, most biocontrol agents also are killed by this heat treatment. Thus, biocontrol agents must recolonize composts after peak heating. The raw feedstock, the environment in which the compost is produced, as well as conditions during curing and utilization determine the potential for recolonization by this microflora and disease suppression. Controlled inoculation of compost with biocontrol agents has proved necessary to induce consistent levels of suppression on a commercial scale. The decomposition level (stability) of composts also affects suppressiveness. Immature composts serve as food for pathogens and increase disease even when biocontrol agents are present. On the other hand, excessively stabilized organic matter does not support the activity of biocontrol agents. Composts also may induce detrimental effects. For example, chemical factors may negate suppressiveness. Salinity and the concentration of nitrogen in composts are principal chemical factors to be considered.     

Responses of nematode‐community structure in turfgrass soil to microbial filtrates from municipal–solid waste compost

Actinomycetes, Bacillus subtilis, and Bacillus thuringiensis were isolated from municipal–solid waste (MSW) compost, and different microbial liquid filtrates (MLF) were prepared. Sterile culture media with no microbes were used as their controls. The effects of MLF on soil nematode communities were examined in pot‐grown Festuca arundinacea Schreb. Fifteen genera of nematodes in background soil were identified, of which Helicotylenchus and Rotylenchus were dominant. The inoculation of MLF strongly affected the abundance and community structure of soil nematodes. Compared with their controls, lower total nematode numbers following MLF incorporation were found. Actinomycetes inoculation changed community structure of soil nematodes, transforming the dominant genera from Helicotylenchus and Rotylenchus into Cephalobus, Chiloplacus, and Aphelenchus. Actinomycetes incorporation resulted in a significant decrease of plant‐parasitic nematodes relative to control pots. Only plant‐parasitic and omnivorous‐predatory nematodes were found in treatments following B. subtilis inoculation, and Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus were dominant genera with relative abundance of 76.2% and 14.3%, respectively. Although the dominant genera were still Helicotylenchus and Rotylenchus, B. thuringiensis inoculation led to a marked decrease in populations of plant‐parasitic nematodes and an increase in populations of fungivorous and bacterivorous nematodes relative to control. Shannon's diversity index (H′), evenness index (J′), richness index (SR), and Wasilewska index (WI) in pots treated with actinomycetes and B. thuringiensis filtrates were significantly higher than those of their controls, whereas significant lower dominance index (λ) in actinomycetes and B. thuringiensis treatments was observed than their controls. Plant growth was improved in the treatments inoculated with three microbes. The findings highlight that actinomycetes can most effectively suppress plant‐parasitic nematodes, increase community diversity, evenness, and richness, thus improving soil environment for turf growth.     

Functional diversity of nematodes

Nematodes are the most abundant metazoa. Their food specificity, the high number of species and high abundance in every habitat where decomposition takes place indicates that the structure of the nematode community has a high information content. Since nematodes respond rapidly to new resources, and the nematode fauna can be efficiently analyzed, the structure of the nematode community offers an instrument to assess (changes in) the conditions of soils. A functional grouping of nematodes is generally synonymous with allocation into feeding groups. However, soil quality assessment indices based on the presence of all feeding groups still provide insufficient information regarding the functioning of soil ecosystems and their threats. An alternative concept of functional groups is based on the life history of nematodes. In this paper we present the most recent colonizer–persister allocation and the application of this scaling in the Maturity Index, cp-triangles, MI(2–5) and PPI/MI-ratio. We propose to integrate the life strategy approach and trophic group classification to obtain a better understanding of nematode biodiversity and soil functioning. Attention is given to competitive exclusion and coexistence and we summarize present concepts regarding succession and degradation.