Development of crop water stress index of wheat crop for scheduling irrigation using infrared thermometry

This study was conducted to develop the relationship between canopy-air temperature difference and vapour pressure deficit for no stress condition of wheat crop (baseline equations), which was used to quantify crop water stress index (CWSI) to schedule irrigation in winter wheat crop (Triticum aestivum L.). The randomized block design (RBD) was used to design the experimental layout with five levels of irrigation treatments based on the percentage depletion of available soil water (ASW) in the root zone. The maximum allowable depletion (MAD) of the available soil water (ASW) of 10, 40 and 60 per cent, fully wetted (no stress) and no irrigation (fully stressed) were maintained in the crop experiments. The lower (non-stressed) and upper (fully stressed) baselines were determined empirically from the canopy and ambient air temperature data obtained using infrared thermometry and vapour pressure deficit (VPD) under fully watered and maximum water stress crop, respectively. The canopy-air temperature difference and VPD resulted linear relationships and the slope (m) and intercept (c) for lower baseline of pre-heading and post-heading stages of wheat crop were found m = −1.7466, c = −1.2646 and m = −1.1141, c = −2.0827, respectively. The CWSI was determined by using the developed empirical equations for three irrigation schedules of different MAD of ASW. The established CWSI values can be used for monitoring plant water status and planning irrigation scheduling for wheat crop.     

冬小麦冠气温差及其相关影响因素关系研究

在冬小麦主要生育期(2002年的4月初到5月底),对3个不同水分处理测定了冠层温度、气温以及土壤含水率和叶面积指数,并进一步计算了冠气温差并分析了冠气温差与土壤含水率和叶面积指数间的关系。结果表明:不同的灌溉措施对冠气温差的影响是有差异的;中午14:00左右在H2高度处(冠层之上)的冠气温差能反映作物的水分特征,可以用此时刻的实验结果来检验遥感数据反演冠气温差的精度;在60～80cm土层的土壤体积含水率能较好地反映中午14:00冠层之上冬小麦冠气温差的变化情况,不同水分处理二者的相关系数(R2)分别为0.60361(节水灌溉),0.95668(充分灌溉),0.84597(不灌溉);不同水分处理下的冬小麦主要生育期的叶面积指数与冠气温差也有一定的相关性,冠层之上二者的相关系数分别为:0.76082(节水灌溉),0.40548(充分灌溉),0.99499(不灌溉),这为区域上遥感反演作物冠气温差来监测土壤含水率及作物估产提供了依据。     

基于冠气温差的淮北地区水稻日需水量估算模型研究

【目的】构建水稻日需水量估算模型,为灌区动态用水管理提供科学指导。【方法】以淮北淮涟灌区水稻为研究对象,通过称质量法获取水稻日需水量,同步采集水稻冠层温度和相关气象要素,分析各要素与实测水稻日需水量关系,构建了以太阳净辐射和冠气温差为参数的水稻日需水量估算模型,并利用叶面积指数对其进行修正。【结果】太阳净辐射量和冠气温差是反映水稻日需水量的关键因子,水稻日需水量与太阳净辐射呈正线性相关,与冠气温差呈负线性相关,冠气温差随着生育期延续有增大的趋势。通过叶面积指数修正的模型相对误差为5.07%,均方根误差为0.183 mm/d。【结论】利用冠气温差估算水稻日需水量,方法较为简单,精度满足灌溉管理要求。     

Relations between relative evapotranspiration and predawn leaf water potential in soybean grown in several locations

Summary The measurement of water consumption in the field is normally restricted to research purposes, although the development of practical field criteria for timing water application is required to improve crop productivity. To develop such criteria irrigation experiments on Soybean were conducted from flowering to grain filling at four locations which differed in their soil properties and the convective contribution of their climates to potential evapotranspiration. The energy balance, predawn leaf water potential (PLWP), soil moisture depletion, and a crop water stress index (CWSI) based on foliage temperature were measured. The range of soil, atmospheric, phenological and irrigation conditions, produced a common, linear relation between relative evapotranspiration (rET) and the logarithm of -PLWP. Correlation with the temperature based CWSI was weak. A similar relation with PLWP for other C₃ plants was also derived from data in the literature. This relation could be helpful for irrigation scheduling once the critical values of rET for crop productivity are known.     

Energy balance and crop water stress in winter maize under phenology-based irrigation scheduling

In eastern India, cultivation of winter maize is getting popular after rainy season rice and farmers practice irrigation scheduling of this crop based on critical phenological stages. In this study, crop water stress index of winter maize at different critical stages wase determined to investigate if phenology-based irrigation scheduling could be optimized further. The components of the energy budget of the crop stand were computed. The stressed and non-stressed base lines were also developed (between canopy temperature and vapor pressure deficit) and with the help of base line equation, [(T _c − T _a) = −1.102 VPD − 3.772], crop water stress index (CWSI) was determined from the canopy-air temperature data collected frequently throughout the growing season. The values of CWSI (varied between 0.42 and 0.67) were noted just before the irrigations were applied at critical phenological stages. The soil moisture depletion was also measured throughout the crop growing period and plotted with CWSI at different stages. Study revealed that at one stage (silking), CWSI was much lower (0.42–0.48) than that of recommended CWSI (0.60) for irrigation scheduling. Therefore, more research is required to further optimize the phenology-based irrigation scheduling of winter maize in the region. This method is being used now by local producers. The intercepted photosynthetically active radiation and normalized difference vegetation index over the canopy of the crop were also measured and were found to correlate better with leaf area index.     

基于冠层温度的水稻关键生育期缺水诊断

以船行灌区水稻为试验作物,在2014年7-10月水稻生长发育的分蘖期、拔节孕穗期、开花结实期等3个关键期进行水稻需水试验,研究水稻冠层温度、大气温度与土壤含水量的关系,提出作物缺水诊断方法.研究结果表明:冠层温度晴天变化趋势随气温变化差异较大,阴雨天与大气温度差异不大,这与晴天水稻蒸发蒸腾强度高而阴雨天蒸发蒸腾强度低有关;抽穗开花期冠气温差在午间呈现正值,其他时间大多为负值,而成熟期冠气温差基本为正值且午间最大;通过水稻拔节孕穗期和开花结实期间冠气温差和对应时段内土壤适宜含水率上下限的对比,确定直播和插秧稻在拔节孕穗期的冠气温差上限达到1.5 ℃时,在开花结实期冠气温差上限分别超过2.4 ℃和2.5 ℃时,土壤水分已达胁迫水平,应对水稻进行灌溉.通过监测冠层温度,可以便捷地获取水稻缺水状况.     

Sorghum yield,water use and canopy temperatures under different levels of irrigation

This research was initiated to examine water use of differentially irrigated sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) and to evaluate the plant water stress using canopy temperature measurements.Field experiments were conducted for 3 years characterised by different weather conditions at Montpellier, France. The crop was subjected to 14 differentially irrigated treatments which included, each year, a full irrigated and a dry treatment. Plant and soil measurements monitored during the crop cycle included soil water content, leaf water potential, and canopy temperature.Mid-day measurement of crop canopy temperature (Tc) /air temperature (Ta) difference reached a maximum of 7°C in the dry treatment and was maintained close to 0°C in full irrigated treatment. The relationships between (Tc-Ta) and vapour pressure deficit (VPD) commonly referred to as ‘baseline’ in the determination of crop water stress indicator (CWSI) were examined on function of wind speed and global solar radiation. Three approaches of estimating CWSI were compared. Summations of stress-degree-day (SDD) and temperature-stress-day (TSD) were well related to both relative evapotranspiration and yield (r² > 0.70).     

Irrigation water management with water deficit index calculated based on oblique viewed surface temperature

In this study, the relationship between water deficit index (WDI) and a number of parameters related to soil water status, crop monitoring and yield were investigated with regard to drip irrigated dwarf green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris, humilis) in Ankara, Turkey during the 2004 and 2005 growing seasons. Three different WDIs were calculated based on three different spectral indexes and oblique viewed surface temperature. Soil water status was quantified by soil water content (SWC) and soil water deficit index (SWDI). Crop evapotranspiration (ET_c), leaf water potential (LWP), spectral indexes and crop water stress index (CWSI) were determined. Although the WDIs have statistically significant relationships with the parameters, it is hard to use WDIs based on oblique viewed surface temperature for irrigation scheduling purposes. However, total yield estimation and monitoring of seasonal crop water use status could be achieved through this kind of WDI.     

Practical prediction of actual evapotranspiration

Summary A simplified method of estimating actual evapotranspiration of crops during an irrigation interval in which soil-moisture deficits occur is presented. With some simplifying assumptions, a relation is developed between a crop-dependent critical leaf water potential, potential evapotranspiration rates, and the fraction of available soil-moisture at which reduction in evapotranspiration occurs (Fig. 1). This relation was tested by comparing calculated and measured rates of actual evapotranspiration for maize, alfalfa, sorghum, wheat, potato, and sorghum crops (Fig. 2, A through F). Calculated values of actual crop water use were close to measured ones, except for the potato crop. Sensitivity tests indicated that, for crops with a critical leaf water potential above –7.5 bars, i.e. –0.75 MPa, errors exceeding 10 per cent were made in estimating the fraction of available soil moisture at which reduction in evapotranspiration occurs.     

Assessment of trunk diameter variation derived indices as water stress indicators in mature olive trees

Plant age and size, seasonal growth patters and crop load, among other factors, have been reported to decrease the usefulness of trunk diameter variation (TDV) derived indices as water stress indicators in olive trees. Our hypothesis, however, is that indices derived from TDV records in old, big olive trees are sensitive enough to detect levels of water stress in trees of orchards under deficit irrigation that, although severe, are below the threshold for fruit shrivelling. This is of importance for the production of good quality oils, since fruit shrivelling may affect oil quality. The aim of this work was to assess different TDV-derived indices as water stress indicators in 40-year-old ‘Manzanilla’ olive trees with heavy crop load. We derived the maximum daily shrinkage (MDS), daily growth (DG) and daily recovery (DR) from TDV records taken during the 2008 dry season both in well-irrigated FAO trees and in deficit-irrigated RI trees. Measurements of volumetric soil water content (θ_v), leaf water potential (Ψ_l), stomatal conductance (g_s), net CO₂ assimilation rate (A), water and oil accumulation in the fruits and yield parameters were made for both treatments. The trunks did not grow during the experimental season, either in the FAO or RI trees, likely because of the heavy crop load. Therefore, DG was useless as water stress indicator. For MDS and DR, which were responsive to the increase of the trees’ water stress, we calculated the variability, quantified by the coefficient of variation (CV), the signal intensity (S_I) and the sensitivity (S_I/CV) values. In addition, we derived reference equations for irrigation scheduling from the relationships between MDS values in the FAO trees and main meteorological variables. Values both of S_I-MDS and S_I-DR were steady until September 9, despite of increasing differences in θ_v between treatments from early in the dry season. The Ψ_l vs θ_v values showed an outstanding capacity of the RI trees to take up water from the drying soil, and the Ψ_l vs g_s values showed a near-isohydric behaviour of those deficit-irrigated trees. These results explain, at least in part, the lack of response of MDS and DR on that period. Both S_I-MDS and S_I-DR peaked for the first time on September 9, 16 days before the appearance of fruit shrivelling. Our results suggest that using TDV-derived indices as water stress indicators for irrigation scheduling in old olive orchards with medium to low plant densities, i.e. with large root zones, may be useless in case the irrigation strategy is aimed at keeping the soil close to field capacity. Nevertheless, the MDS and DR indices may be useful indicators for the avoidance of fruit shrivelling in deficit irrigated olive orchards for the production of good quality oil. Reliable reference equations for scheduling irrigation with the signal intensity approach were obtained from the regression of MDS values vs the daily maximum values of both the air temperature and the vapour pressure deficit of the air.     

Estimation of dwarf green bean water use under semi-arid climate conditions through ground-based remote sensing techniques

Determination of temporal and spatial distribution of water use (WU) within agricultural land is critical for irrigation management and could be achieved by remotely sensed data. The aim of this study was to estimate WU of dwarf green beans under excessive and limited irrigation water application conditions through indicators based on remotely sensed data. For this purpose, field experiments were conducted comprising of six different irrigation water levels. Soil water content, climatic parameters, canopy temperature and spectral reflectance were all monitored. Reference evapotranspiration (ET₀), crop coefficient K_c and potential crop evapotraspiration (ET_c) were calculated by means of methods described in FAO-56. In addition, WU values were determined by using soil water balance residual and various indexes were calculated. Water use fraction (WUF), which represents both excessive and limited irrigation applications, was defined through WU, ET₀ and K_c. Based on the relationships between WUF and remotely sensed indexes, WU of each irrigation treatments were then estimated. According to comparisons between estimated and measured WU, in general crop water stress index (CWSI) can be offered for monitoring of irrigated land. At the same time, under water stress, correlation between measured WU and estimated WU based on CWSI was the highest too. However, canopy-air temperature difference (T_c − T_a) is more reliable than others for excessive water use conditions. Where there is no data related to canopy temperature, some of spectral vegetation indexes could be preferable in the estimation of WU.     

Canopy-air temperature differentials,water use and yield of chickpea in a semi-arid environment

Summary Stress degree days (SDD) and canopy-air temperature differential summation procedures were used to quantify the response of crops of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) to soil water availability and atmospheric demand over a four year period on a deep and medium-deep Vertisol in India using different irrigation treatments and planting dates. Canopy temperatures measured between 13.00–14.00 h provided a good index of the daily mean canopy temperature. Differences in the diurnal variation in the canopy-air temperature differentials between irrigated and non-irrigated chickpea reflected clearly the differential response of the crop to soil water availability. Total water use of chickpea decreased with increasing SDD. Data pooled over three growing seasons showed a close relationship between SDD and yield of chickpea. Calculated water stress index (WSI) which includes the vapor pressure deficit term showed a similar relationship with yield to that with SDD.Approved for publication as ICRISAT Journal Article 580(Via Paris)     

Effects of rainfall harvesting and mulching technologies on water use efficiency and crop yield in the semi-arid Loess Plateau, China

In semi-arid areas, crop growth is greatly limited by water. Amount of available water in soil can be increased by surface mulching and other soil management practices. Field experiments were conducted in 2005 and 2006 at Gaolan, Gansu, China, to determine the influence of ridge and furrow rainfall harvesting system (RFRHS), surface mulching and supplementary irrigation (SI) in various combinations on rainwater harvesting, amount of moisture in soil, water use efficiency (WUE), biomass yield of sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolour L.) and seed yield of maize (Zea mays L.). In conventional fields without RFRHS, gravel-sand mulching produced higher biomass yield than plastic-mulching or straw-mulching. In plastic-mulched fields, an increasing amount of supplemental irrigation was needed to improve crop yield. There was no effect of RFRHS without plastic-covered ridge on rainwater harvesting when natural precipitation was less than 5 mm per event. This was due to little runoff of rainwater from frequent low precipitation showers, and most of the harvested rainwater gathered at the soil surface is lost to evaporation. In the RFRHS, crop yield and WUE were higher with plastic-covered ridges than bare ridges, and also higher with gravel-sand-mulched furrows than bare furrows in most cases, or straw-mulched furrows in some cases. This was most likely due to decreased evaporation with plastic or gravel-sand mulch. In the RFRHS with plastic-covered ridges and gravel-sand-mulched furrows, application of 30 mm supplemental irrigation produced the highest yield and WUE for sweet sorghum and maize in most cases. In conclusion, the findings suggested the integrated use of RFRHS, mulching and supplementary irrigation to improve rainwater availability for high sustainable crop yield. However, the high additional costs of supplemental irrigation and construction of RFRHS for rainwater harvesting need to be considered before using these practices on a commercial scale.     

Response of sorghum to moisture stress using line source sprinkler irrigation I. Plant-water relations

The response of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) to moisture stress during the post-rainy season was studied at ICRISAT research center on a medium deep Alfisol using a line source sprinkler irrigation system. Changes in soil moisture content, stomatal conductance, leaf-water potential and leaf temperature of sorghum as a function of distance away from the line source sprinkler system were monitored throughout the season. Use of the line source technique facilitated the imposition of a range of moisture stress levels as indicated by increased water use by sorghum closer to the line source compared with the crop farther away from the line source. Canopy response measured in terms of stomatal conductance, leaf-water potential, and leaf temperature clearly reflected the gradient in moisture stress perpendicular to the line source.     

Canopy temperature as a measure of salinity stress on sorghum

Summary A complete understanding of plant response to combined water and salinity stress is desirable. Previous growth chamber and greenhouse experiments with sorghum and maize indicate that soil salinity, by negatively affecting growth processes, may reduce consumptive water use, thus prolonging the supply of available soil moisture. In the present field experiment, canopy temperature measurements were used to examine the effect of soil salinity on the plant-soil water relations of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. cv. Northrup King 1580). An infrared thermometer was used to measure canopy temperature during a 9-day period including two irrigations in plots of various salinities. The salinity treatments were created by a dual line-source sprinkler irrigation system, which applied waters of different quality. Excess irrigation allowed soil moisture to be uniform across the salinity treatments at the beginning of the measurement period. Consumptive water use and soil salinity were measured to quantify the salinity and water treatments. Grain and dry matter yields provided measures of plant response. Canopy temperature measurements were sensitive enough to detect differences across the salinity treatments when soil moisture was uniform for several days following irrigation. However, over the 9-day measurement period, plants in the low-salt plots used more water than plants in the high-salt plots. This differential water use eventually offset the salinity-induced stress, with the result that temperature differences were eliminated. Differences in temperature were observed again following irrigation. The results demonstrate that canopy temperature can be used as a tool to detect salinity stress on sorghum. Timing of measurements with regard to irrigation is identified as a key factor in detecting temperature differences that can be attributed to the presence of soil salinity.     

Changes in plant water status of Maize (Zea mays L.) with ontogeny

Summary Irrigations scheduled on plant water status ignore the effect of ontogeny on plant water status. Leaf xylem water potential (XWP) of maize sown on three dates in a sandy loam soil was measured under the same environment for evaluating the effect of ontogeny on plant water status. Minimum XWP (measured between 13.00-14.30 h) of the youngest crop was the highest during two crop seasons and the differences in XWP of the youngest and the oldest maize plants ranged from 0.25 to 0.65 MPa during the season. Maximum XWP (measured before dawn) of the youngest crop was nearly 0.1 MPa higher than that of the oldest crop. Diurnal variation in XWP was lowest in the youngest crop. The results highlight the need of ontogeny dependent critical values of plant water status for scheduling irrigation.     

Water use and wheat yields in northern India under different irrigation regimes

Field studies were conducted during a 3-year period to determine wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield in response to irrigation scheduling and variable fertilization.Irrigation scheduling was done on the basis of cumulative pan evaporation. Irrigations were given at 25, 50 and 75% available water in the top 60 cm soil profile. The amount of irrigation water applied at each irrigation was equivalent to 75% of the cumulative open pan evaporation. The crop was fertilized at the rate of 0, 60, and 120 kg/ha nitrogen.The yield of wheat was significantly affected by irrigation water and nitrogen treatments. Maximum yield was obtained with irrigation at 50% available soil water and 120 kg/ha nitrogen addition (5092 kg/ha). Consumptive use of water was maximum when irrigation was applied at 75% available soil water. The irrigation at 50% available soil water, however, resulted in greatest yield per cm water use by the crop.     

水稻需水关键期冠气温差变化规律试验研究

为了研究基于冠层温度的水分监测技术在水稻上的适用性,在辽宁省灌溉试验站蒸渗器中设置不同的水分处理进行试验,运用数理统计的方法分析了沈阳地区水稻需水关键期冠气温差（Tc-Ta）的变化规律及其与土壤水分吸力、空气饱和水汽压差（VPD）之间的相互关系,并分析了灌水对水稻冠气温差的影响。结果表明,水稻的冠气温差一般为负值,因天...     

Diurnal changes in the water relations and transpiration of a soybean crop simulated during the development of water deficits

Summary A new model for transpiration of a soybean crop is formulated and solved numerically: the model specifically includes the water stored in the plant. It describes the changes in the daily course of transpiration, stomatal behaviour, leaf water potential and leaf temperature as water deficits develop. The calculated values of leaf water potential (Fig. 3) and transpiration (Fig. 5) compared well with measured values observed during the development of water deficits in a soybean crop growing on a grey cracking clay soil.     

The effect of an intelligent surface drip irrigation method on sorghum biomass, energy and water savings

Over the last few decades, precipitation has decreased as a result of climate change. This change increases crop water requirements, while irrigation water is wasted because of improper irrigation scheduling. Soil moisture sensors could be used to improve irrigation scheduling and save both water and energy. The objective was to study the energy and water savings, and the gross margin achieved, when using an intelligent surface drip irrigation method on sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. In the years 2008 and 2009, a study was conducted at the farm of the University of Thessaly, Central Greece. A Class A evaporation pan and an automated frequency domain reflectometry soil moisture sensor were used for irrigation scheduling. Two treatments in four replications were organized in a randomized complete block design: (1) pan surface drip irrigation (PSDI100) and amount of water equal to 100 % of the daily evapotranspiration (ETd), as determined by a Class A evaporation pan, and (2) automated surface drip irrigation (ASDI100) and amount of water equal to 100 % of the ETd, as determined by an automated soil moisture sensor. The mean dry biomass production and the gross margin were greater in the PSDI100 treatment. The fully automated treatment remained profitable despite the high first costs. The mean water saving was 12.5 %, while the mean energy saving was 12.4 %, and the irrigation water-use efficiency was higher in the ASDI100 treatment.