Nitrate leaching from an organic dairy crop rotation: the effects of manure type, nitrogen input and improved crop rotation

Abstract. Four management systems combining high and low livestock densities (0.7 and 1.4 livestock units ha⁻¹) and different types of organic manure (slurry and straw based FYM) were applied to an organic dairy crop rotation (undersown barley – grass–clover – grass–clover – barley/pea – oats – fodder beet) between 1998 and 2001. The effects of the management systems on crop yields and nitrate leaching were measured. In all four years, nitrate leaching, as determined using ceramic suction cups, was higher in the three crops following ploughing of grass–clover than under the barley or grass–clover. Overall, no significant differences in nitrate leaching were observed between the management systems. However, the replacement of the winter wheat crop used in the earlier experimental period (1994–97) by spring oats with catch crops in both the preceding and succeeding winters reduced nitrate leaching compared with the earlier rotation. Increasing the livestock density, which increased manure application by c. 60 kg total N ha⁻¹, increased crop yields by 7 and 9% on average for FYM and slurry, respectively. Yields were 3–5% lower where FYM was used instead of slurry. The experiment confirmed the overriding importance of grassland N management, particularly the cultivation of the ley, in organic dairy crop rotations.     

Ermittlung von Kennwerten optimaler Magnesium-Versorgung für Hafer,Sommerweizen und Mais

Determination of plant analysis criteria characterizing the magnesium nutrition of oats, spring wheat and maize Cereal plants from pot trials were analyzed for criteria of optimal Mg nutrition. The critical Mg concentration in dry matter of aerial parts from oats and spring wheat at the beginning of the shooting stage was found to be 1.8 and 1.3 per mille Mg respectively. The critical Mg concentration with maize is about 2,2 per mille in dry matter of yount leaves at tasseling stage. Because the Mg content of oats (based on dry matter) decreases significantly during the shooting stage, it seems advisable to have additional data (Mg content of green matter, Mg/N ratio, Mg/Ca ratio) which are less influenced by plant age. The Mg/Ca ratio appears to be well suited for evaluating the nutritional status of cereals. Minimum critical Mg/Ca ratios (based on per mille contents) are 0,23 for spring wheat, 0.3 for oats and 0.4 for maize.     

甜玉米/白三叶草秸秆还田的碳氮矿化研究

豆科/禾本科作物间套作后进行秸秆还田能补充土壤养分,缓解集约化农业生产对环境的压力.根据田间甜玉米/白三叶草套种各作物的秸秆产量,在恒温恒湿条件下进行室内培养,探讨秸秆不同方式还田后土壤微生物量碳、微生物量氮、呼吸产生的CO2和矿化产生的无机氮的变化规律.研究发现,各施肥处理的土壤微生物量碳、微生物量氮均在培养前期出现峰值,后期平稳降低;甜玉米秸秆和白三叶草绿肥同时还田的土壤微生物量碳、微生物量氮在各培养时期均最大,峰值分别达529.57 mg·kg-1和75.50 mg·kg-1,土壤呼吸产生的CO2最多;白三叶草绿肥单独还田有利于土壤无机氮的释放,培养第26 d 无机氮达到最大值,为29.81 mg·kg-1,之后一直在对照处理的1.60倍以上,第80 d达到2.48倍;甜玉米秸秆单独还田不利于土壤无机氮的释放,培养的第26 d至结束,甜玉米秸秆处理的无机氮为对照的13%～53%,最大为7.51 mg·kg-1;甜玉米秸秆配施尿素,短期内不利于土壤无机氮矿化.结果表明,施用有机物料能引起土壤有机质的短期快速转化,甜玉米秸秆和白三叶草绿肥配施有利于维持较大基数的土壤微生物量,单施白三叶草绿肥土壤微生物活性强,最有利于土壤速效氮的释放.     

Effect of drought on yield variability of key crops in Czech Republic

The relationship between seasonal agricultural drought and detrended yields (within a period from 1961 to 2000) of selected crops was assessed in the conditions of the Czech Republic, which are to some extent representative of a wider area of Central Europe. Impact of water stress was analyzed using time series of yields for 8 crops (spring barley, winter wheat, grain maize, potato, winter rape, oats, winter rye and hay from permanent meadows) for 77 districts in the Czech Republic (average district area is 1025 km²). Relative version of Palmer’s Z-index (rZ-index or rZ-i) was used as a tool for quantification of agricultural drought. The monthly values of the rZ-index for each individual district were calculated as the spatial average (only for the grids of arable land). The study showed that severe droughts (e.g., in 1981 and 2000) are linked with significant reduction in yields of the main cereals and majority of other crops through the most drought prone regions. We found a statistically significant correlation (p ≤ 0.05) between the sum of the rZ-index for the main growing period of each crop and the yield departures of spring barley within 81% (winter wheat in 57%, maize in 48%, potato in 89%, oats in 79%, winter rye in 52%, rape in 39%, hay in 79%) of the analyzed districts. This study also defined the crop-specific thresholds under which a soil moisture deficit (expressed in terms of rZ-index) leads to severe impact at the district level. This can be expressed as the sum of the monthly rZ-index during the period of high crop sensitivity to drought; for spring barley it is ?5, winter wheat ?5, maize ?9, rape ?12, winter rye ?10, oat ?4, potato ?6 and for hay ?3. The length of the sensitive period is also crop-specific and includes the months that are important for the yield formation. The results show that yields of spring barley (and spring crops in general) are significantly more affected by seasonal water stress than yields of winter crops and hay from permanent meadows. The study proved that a severe drought spell during the sensitive period of vegetative season does have a quantifiable negative effect, even within more humid regions. These results demonstrate that, at least in some areas of the CR (and probably most of Central Europe), drought is one of the key causes of interannual yield variability.     

Der Mangan-Gehalt von Getreide,Mais und Rüben als Anzeiger der Bodenversauerung

Manganese content of cereals, maize and beet as indicator of soil acidity Soil and plant samples with and without growth depressions were taken from 479 agricultural fields (sand - loam) in the former GDR and analysed for pH and Mn and Mg respectively. Depressions in growth accompanied with symptoms of Mn excess and sometimes also of Mg deficiency were observed for barley, wheat, oats, maize and beets at soil pH < 4, 7, for rye at pH < 4, 1 - 4, 4. Soil pH correlated highly negatively with the Mn concentration of plants in early growth stages. Thus toxicity levels of Mn concentration in young plants could be derived. Mn concentrations > 140 mg/kg dry matter in spring barley, > 150 mg/kg in winter barley, > 160 mg/kg in wheat, > 200 mg/kg in rye, > 300 mg/kg in oats, > 350 mg/kg in maize and > 800 mg/kg in beet indicate growth depressions because of soil acidity. In the case of simultaneous Mg deficiency these Mn values are lower for oats and rye.     

华北平原旱地不同熟制作物产量、效益和水分利用比较

针对华北平原地下水超采严重,通过研究雨养旱作条件下不同熟制的产量、投入产出和水分利用效率,探索华北平原缺水区雨养旱作条件下的节水种植制度,可为地下水超采提供技术支撑。以当地主栽种植模式冬小麦和夏玉米一年2熟种植和春玉米一年1熟种植为研究对象,通过大田试验对雨养旱作条件下冬小麦、夏玉米和春玉米3种作物构成的2种种植制度的产量、耗水、投入、产出进行分析。试验于2007—2013年在中国科学院栾城农业生态系统试验站进行,该站为华北平原高产农区的典型代表。试验共设2个处理,T1为冬小麦-夏玉米一年2熟制,T2为春玉米一年1熟制。T1中的冬小麦生育期为每年的10月中上旬至翌年的6月中旬,夏玉米为6月中下旬至10月上旬,冬小麦品种大部分年份为‘科农199’,夏玉米品种为‘郑单958’。T2中春玉米的生育期为每年的5月中下旬至当年的9月上中旬,品种为‘农大108’、‘浚单20’、‘郑单958’和‘先玉335’。试验区从2007年9月至2013年6月一直未灌溉,为雨养旱作条件。研究结果表明,雨养旱作条件下,冬小麦产量基本稳定;夏玉米和春玉米产量随年型不同波动较大,尤其是夏玉米产量受播种时土壤含水量的影响较大,很多年份由于干旱少雨,玉米出苗时间推迟,导致玉米产量大幅度降低。T1比T2虽然具有明显的产量优势,增产34.1%,但由于冬小麦生产投入较高,T1的净收益比T2低279.97元·hm-2。3种作物的生产投入中,农资和机械投入比例最大,劳动力投入占很小比例,农资投入中,化肥投入最高;3种作物的产投比分别为1.42、2.66和3.42,雨养旱作条件下冬小麦的产投比最低,春玉米最高。从作物的耗水结构分析,冬小麦生育期降雨较少,以消耗雨季储存于土壤中的土壤水分为主,春(夏)玉米生育期降雨较多以消耗降雨为主。目前,生产上正在自发地压缩冬小麦的种植面积,春玉米一年1熟种植面积迅速增加。因此,在保证区域粮食安全的条件下,通过调整农业种植结构可以控制水资源的过度开采,保证农业持续发展。     

基于APSIM模型评估北方八省春玉米生产对气候变化的响应

基于北方地区农业气象试验站春玉米多年田间试验数据和逐日气象数据,分析农业生产系统模型APSIM在北方八省春玉米产区的适用性,在区域尺度上识别春玉米发育期和产量的关键气象响应因子,模拟过去54a（1961?2014年）该地区春玉米的生长发育和产量形成过程,探讨春玉米发育期和产量对气候变化的响应规律。结果表明：验证后的APSIM玉米模型在北方八省春玉米产区具有较好的适用性。气温和土壤温度是北方各地春玉米发育期的首要关键气象响应因子,其中北方春播区春玉米各关键发育期对最高气温响应最明显,西北内陆区春玉米各关键发育期对最低气温响应最明显。平均气温、日最高气温、日最低气温和土壤温度的升高均会导致春玉米生育期（出苗、开花和成熟）日序提前,发育天数减少,春玉米提前成熟。北方春播区春玉米产量对温度、降水、日照时数响应明显,西北内陆区春玉米产量对温度和潜在蒸散响应明显,大部分地区温度的升高和潜在蒸散的增加会引起玉米产量的显著下降。     

山西省春玉米生育期干旱特征分析

应用山西省15个气象站点1981-2011年春玉米生育期内逐日气温、降水量资料分别计算不同生育期的相对湿润度指数、降水与作物需水的耦合度,以相对湿润度指数（M）作为春玉米干旱等级评价指标,分析近31a山西省春玉米不同生育期干旱变化特征。结果表明：（1）近31a来,山西春玉米各生育期中,以出苗-拔节期干旱发生频率最高,达86.95%,干旱发生等级以中等以上为主,降水与作物需水的耦合度最小,仅0.41,该生育期缺水最严重;播种-出苗期干旱发生频率达82.47%,干旱发生等级以中等以上为主,北部和中部地区降水与作物需水耦合度分别为0.45和0.41,南部地区降水能满足玉米需水要求;拔节-抽雄期降水与作物需水耦合度为0.69,干旱发生频率为51.51%,干旱发生等级以轻旱为主;抽雄-乳熟期和乳熟-成熟期干旱发生频率较低,为32.58%～43.33%,以轻旱为主,降水与作物需水耦合度在0.95以上,降水基本能满足春玉米的需水要求。(2)从北部至南部,山西春玉米各生育期干旱发生频率基本呈递减趋势,降水与春玉米需水耦合度呈递增趋势。全省播种-出苗期中等以上干旱占各级干旱发生频率的比重均为最高,北部、中部和南部地区分别达86.73%、79.43%和72.88%。     

Compost,Manure and Synthetic Fertilizer Influences Crop Yields,Soil Properties,Nitrate Leaching and Crop Nutrient Content

From 1993 to 2001, a maize-vegetable-wheat rotation was compared using either 1) composts, 2) manure, or 3) synthetic fertilizer for nitrogen nutrient input. From 1993 to 1998, red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.) were used as an annual winter legume cover crop prior to maize production. From 1999 to 2001, hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.) served as the legume green manure nitrogen (N) source for maize. In this rotation, wheat depended entirely on residual N that remained in the soil after maize and vegetable (pepper and potato) production. Vegetables received either compost, manure, or fertilizer N inputs. Raw dairy manure stimulated the highest overall maize yields of 7,395 kg/ha (approximately 140 bushels per acre). This exceeded the Berks County mean yield of about 107 bushels per acre from 1994 to 2001. When hairy vetch replaced clover as the winter green manure cover crop, maize yields rose in three of the four treatments (approximately 500-1,300 kg/ha, or 10-24 bu/a). Hairy vetch cover cropping also resulted in a 9-25 % increase in wheat yields in the compost treatments compared to clover cover cropping. Hairy vetch cover crops increased both maize and wheat grain protein contents about 16 to 20% compared to the clover cover crop. Compost was superior to conventional synthetic fertilizer and raw dairy manure in 1) building soil nutrient levels, 2) providing residual nutrient support to wheat production, and 3) reducing nutrient losses to ground and surface waters. After 9 years, soil carbon (C) and soil N remained unchanged or declined slightly in the synthetic fertilizer treatment, but increased with use of compost amendments by 16-27% for C and by 13-16% for N. However, with hairy vetch cover crops, N leaching increased 4 times when compared to clover cover crops. September was the highest month for nitrate leaching, combining high rainfall with a lack of active cash crop or cover crop growth to use residual N. Broiler litter leaf compost (BLLC) showed the lowest nitrate leaching of all the nutrient amendments tested (P= 0.05).     

Occurrence of barley yellow dwarf virus and cereal yellow dwarf virus in pasture grasses and spring cereals in Latvia

Abstract

The relative frequency of three viruses causing barley yellow dwarf disease (BYD) was assessed in spring cereals and pasture grasses at two regions in Latvia in 2000–2002. A total of 2589 leaf samples (367 from spring oats, 743 from spring barley, 1479 from predominant grass species) were collected from 44 fields of spring oats, 84 fields of spring barley, and 26 pastures. We found that isolates of barley yellow dwarf virus-PAV (BYDV-PAV), barley yellow dwarf virus-MAV (BYDV-MAV) and cereal yellow dwarf virus-RPV (CYDV-RPV) were present in these samples of spring cereals and pasture grasses. The most common isolates of barley yellow dwarf virus were BYDV-PAV and BYDV-MAV in both grasses and cereals, but there was a great difference between years and regions. The proportion of BYD symptomatic cereal samples that reacted positively in TAS-ELISA test was 9 to 15%. The overall BYDV/CYDV incidence in pasture grasses ranged from 2 to 19%. The incidence of BYDV/CYDV infection was higher in Festuca elatior than in other grass species. Isolates of CYDV-RPV were rather rare: only found in Lolium perenne and Dactylis glomerata among six grass species tested and more frequently in barley than oats. This paper reports the first quantitative survey of selected BYD-causing viruses in spring cereals and pasture grasses in Latvia and in the Baltic states. We conclude that three selected virus species are prevalent in spring cereals and pasture grasses in Latvia, although with great variation between years. Further studies are needed to obtain knowledge of the most critical factors that determine these fluctuations.     

Denitrification under different cultivated plants: effects of soil moisture tension,nitrate concentration,and photosynthetic activity

Summary Plant effects on the denitrification rate were investigated in pot experiments at different soil moisture tensions and nitrate concentrations. Nitrate concentrations and the soil moisture tension were regulated immediately before each measurement. The effects of the plants on denitrification rates were dependent on the soil moisture tension. At a low soil moisture tension (–7 cm H₂O), there was a 10-fold increase in the denitrification rate (planted versus unplanted soil). At a medium moisture tension (–30 cm H₂O) the plants had practically no effect, and at the highest tension (–60 cm H₂O) the effect was slightly negative. Large differences in denitrification rates under different plant species were observed. At a low soil moisture tension, the average denitrification rate (g N kg^–1 soil h^–1) was 39–42 under small grains (barley, wheat, and oats), 47–82 under the grasses (cocksfoot, meadow grass, meadow fescue, and timothy) and 18 under red clover. The differences between the monocots were attributable to differences in plant growth rates, rather than to any specific difference in stimulation or inhibition of denitrification, since the variations in photosynthetic activity fairly well predicted the differences in denitrification rates under different monocots. Clover, however, gave much lower denitrification rates than those predicted by the photosynthetic activity.     

The decomposition of afterharvest residues in chernozems during the autumn-spring period and in the annual cycle

In the period from September to May, the decomposition of stubble by microorganisms was more active than that during the summer period. The mineralization of stubble of sweet clover, peas, and corn was more active than that of spring wheat, barley, oats, and winter rye. The root residues of the majority of the crops were decomposed slower than the stubble. The yield of the wheat depended on the amount of afterharvest residues, their chemical composition, and the rate of their mineralization. The increase in wheat yields as dependent on the input of the stubble remains of the precursors into the soil can be arranged in the following order: wheat, corn < rye, annual herbs < peas.     

Increased phosphorus availability from sewage sludge ashes to maize in a crop rotation with clover

A recycling of Phosphorus (P) from the human food chain is mandatory to secure the future P supply for food production. However, many available recycled P fertilizers from sewage sludge do not have an adequate P bioavailability and, thus, are not suitable for their application in soils with pH >5.5–6.0, unless being combined with efficient mobilization measures. The aim of the study was to test the P mobilization ability of red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) from two thermally recycled P fertilizers for a subsequently grown maize. Two sewage sludge ashes (SSA) were investigated in a pot experiment at soil pH 7.5 with red clover differing in its nitrogen (N) supply (added N fertilizer or biological N₂ fixation (BNF)), followed by maize (Zea maize L.). Shoot dry matter of maize was almost doubled when N supply of previous grown clover was covered by BNF, instead of receiving added N fertilizer. Similarly, shoot P removal of maize following clover with BNF was significantly increased. It is suggested that the P mobilization is related to the BNF, and a proton release of N₂ fixing clover roots led to the measured decrease in soil pH and thereby increased P availability of the tested fertilizers.     

几种聚氨酯包膜尿素的氮素释放特征研究

以聚氨酯为主要包膜材料,以石蜡、改性高岭土和双氰胺(氧化钙)为组合材料,采用滚转包衣法制备了3种聚氨酯包膜尿素。通过静水浸泡和盆栽试验,探讨了3种自研制聚氨酯包膜尿素的氮素释放特性,在氮磷钾等养分供应下研究了6个施肥处理对春玉米生长发育和氮素吸收利用的影响。结果表明,3种自研制聚氨酯包膜尿素在静水(25℃)中氮素累积释放比例的变化趋势基本一致,其24 h 初期释放率为2.04％~3.64％(≤15％),28 d累积释放率为29.88％~34.80％(≤80％),符合缓释肥料的国家标准要求。相对于NPK处理,自研制聚氨酯包膜尿素能明显促进春玉米对氮素吸收利用,其氮肥利用率达32.5％~40.0％,但其与商品包膜尿素(19.5％)之间无显著差异。自研制聚氨酯包膜尿素和商品包膜尿素处理下土壤无机氮素含量峰值分别出现在28和15 d前后,其在土壤中氮素释放时间分别达70和60 d以上。春玉米全生育期内(91 d),自研制聚氨酯包膜尿素处理下土壤无机氮含量都高于商品包膜尿素和NPK处理。因此,与商品包膜尿素和NPK处理相比,自研制聚氨酯包膜尿素的氮素释放时间长且氮素供应充足。     

Aluminum tolerance and micronutrient accumulation in cereal species contrasting in iron efficiency

Aluminum (Al) negatively interferes with the uptake or transport of different nutrients. The aim of our work was to compare the Al tolerance and micronutrient accumulation: iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn), in cereal species (winter wheat, spring wheat, winter rye, oats and barley) contrasting in Fe efficiency. Our previous screening in a calcareous soil showed that oats and barley were more Fe-efficient than spring wheat, winter wheat or winter rye. In Al stress conditions, both oats and barley exhibited more effectiveness in Fe acquisition and translocation from root to shoot in comparison to winter wheat, spring wheat and winter rye. Also, oats and barley responded to Al toxicity by less Al-retarded shoot biomass than other cereal species. A combination of tolerance mechanisms appears to have great importance for Al tolerance including mechanisms underlying Fe efficiency in cereal seedlings.     

猪粪沼液施用对土壤氨挥发及玉米产量和品质的影响

猪粪沼液含有大量的养分,如氮、磷、钾、氨基酸、腐植酸等,但如果不及时施用,也会带来水体富营养化问题。沼液替代化肥是目前最有效的利用方式。采用田间试验方法,在春、夏两季玉米上,研究了猪粪沼液不同用量与不同运筹对土壤氨挥发损失以及玉米产量、品质等的影响。结果表明,夏玉米基施猪粪沼液氨挥发量大于春玉米,沼液的氨挥发量明显大于化肥,且沼液施用量越大,氨挥发量越大;由氨挥发导致的氮素损失量占施肥量的0.17%~2.16%,平均为0.88%。在春玉米中,单独施用化肥以及化肥与沼液各50%配施处理的产量分别为901.55 kg.667m?2和892.71 kg.667m?2,显著高于其他处理;纯化肥处理可溶性糖为103.69 g.kg?1,显著低于其他处理;纯化肥处理皮渣率为9.87%,显著高于其他处理;其他品质指标各处理间无显著差异。在夏玉米中,总体产量不如春玉米,纯化肥处理产量为523.47 kg,显著高于其他处理,化肥与沼液各50%配施处理的产量仅次于纯化肥处理,为513.41 kg。纯化肥处理的玉米品质总体上高于纯沼液处理,但沼液和化肥各50%处理玉米品质与纯化肥处理无明显差异。可见,对玉米植物而言,以50%沼液替代化学肥料,在技术上可行,可以获得与化肥处理相同的玉米产量与品质。     

微咸水膜下滴灌不同灌水下限对盐碱地土壤水盐运移及玉米产量的影响

为了研究盐碱地上微咸水膜下滴灌不同灌水下限对土壤水盐运移和玉米产量的影响,在长胜试验站开展了微咸水膜下滴灌玉米的大田试验。试验采用负压计指导灌溉,控制滴头下20cm深处的土壤基质势下限分别为-10,-20,-30,-40kPa,每个处理重复3次,按随机区组布置。结果表明:膜下滴灌湿润体形状在垂直于滴灌带的滴头所在竖直剖面上近似为半椭圆形,随着灌水下限的增大,湿润层土体含水率增大;玉米根部附近均出现盐分低值区,膜外表层均出现盐分高值区;-20kPa和-30kPa灌水下限适中,既能较充分淋洗膜内表层土壤盐分,又不会造成微咸水中的盐分滞留累积;在玉米生育期内,膜内、膜外地下100cm土体均积盐;-10kPa和-20kPa下限处理对应的湿润体垂直深度约为60cm;玉米收获后,地下100cm土体均积盐,需要进行秋浇或春汇,大量淋洗土壤盐分,保证耕地盐分不逐年累积;试验条件下,玉米产量随着灌水下限的降低而减少。     

河北低平原区春玉米一熟替代麦玉两熟制的 水生态与粮食安全分析

本研究针对河北低平原区水资源日益短缺的现状,于2011—2014年在河北省吴桥县开展田间试验,以小麦?玉米两熟制(WS)为对照,设置零灌溉春玉米一熟制(SMRF)和适水条件下春玉米一熟制(SMSW)2种种植模式,共3个处理,研究该区改传统高耗水的小麦?玉米两熟制为春玉米一熟制的可行性。结果表明:周年耗水量SMSW、SMRF较WS分别降低48.4%和54.2%;冬小麦耗水主要来自灌溉水和土壤储水,试验年间降雨仅能满足冬小麦耗水总量的32.9%,春玉米生育期内耗水主要来自降雨,试验年间SMSW和SMRF生育期内有效降雨总量分别满足春玉米耗水总量的91.9%和94.9%。SMSW和SMRF周年产量平均较WS分别降低24.4%和45.8%。SMSW和SMRF水分利用效率较WS平均分别高24.8%和0.3%。SMSW和SMRF的经济效益较WS平均分别减少5.2%和36.8%。经济水分利用效率SMSW和SMRF较WS平均分别高56.7%和17.5%。当下WS较SMSW仍具有一定的产量和效益优势,但WS对地下水灌溉依赖严重;而SMSW的水分利用效率和经济水分利用效率显著高于WS,未来随着春玉米高产技术体系的成熟,春玉米产量的进一步提高,在我国粮食总产、库存、进口"三增"的"新常态"下,该区改小麦玉米两熟为春玉米一熟具有兼顾水生态和粮食安全的可行性。     

Effects of aggregate structure and organic C on wettability of Ustolls

Soil wettability is especially important for rainfed agriculture in climates with a dry period during the growing season. The effect of aggregate structure and soil organic C content on wettability of soil aggregates was determined for grassland (grass) and tilled fields (tillage). Soil organic C, plastic limit, aggregate total porosity, and wettability at 100 mm (rapid wetting) and 300 mm (slow wetting) water tension were measured on soil at 0–0.2 m depth. Natural aggregates from tillage and grass were compared to soil pellets formed by remolding aggregates. At both tensions, wettability of grass aggregates was significantly greater than that of tillage aggregates (P ≤ 0.001). Pellets were significantly less wettable than natural aggregates at 300 mm tension and during the initial wetting at 100 mm tension, but became significantly more wettable with time at 100 mm tension. Cumulative water uptake during 60 min exceeded the initial total porosity of pellets and natural tillage aggregates, suggesting incipient failure (formation of microcracks) during fast wetting. Grass aggregates contained twice as much organic C as tillage aggregates (26 g kg⁻¹ versus 13 g kg⁻¹). Organic C was linearly and positively related to plastic limit, total porosity, and the wettability of natural aggregates at 300 mm tension. At 100 mm tension, organic C was negatively related to wettability of natural aggregates under grass, but unrelated to wettability under tillage. Aggregate wettability was positively related to organic carbon content, except when the arrangement of soil constituents reduced or prevented incipient failure and soil dispersion during rapid wetting resulted in cumulative water uptake (60 min) similar to initial aggregate total porosity. Organic C increased wettability of grass aggregates when compared to tillage aggregates and also stabilized natural aggregates during fast wetting (100 mm tension). Both soil organic C content and aggregate structure were key factors controlling aggregate stability and wettability.     

Soil physical fertility, soil structure and rooting conditions after ploughing organically managed grass/clover swards

Effective management of soil structure and organic matter are essential in organic cropping to ensure good rooting conditions and to optimize the production of mineralized N and thus minimize greenhouse gas emissions. We investigated how mid‐winter or early spring ploughing and three grazing duration treatments prior to ploughing influenced soil structure, soil organic matter and plant root growth under the first spring barley crop after a grass–clover ley. The experiment was carried out over two seasons. We also studied the soil under first‐year oats in a long‐term rotations experiment where 2 or 3 years of arable crops followed 3 or 4 years of grass. Pore size distribution and pore continuity, bulk density, particulate (light fraction) organic matter, readily oxidizable organic matter (ROM), aggregate size distribution and root length densities were measured. Macroporosity appeared to be the best indicator of soil physical fertility; it was sensitive to changes in soil structure arising from compaction and root growth. This, along with visual examination, revealed the loosening resulting from ploughing. The generally favourable macroporosity amongst small, stable aggregates reduced the likelihood of development of anaerobism. Macroporosity and aggregate size can be estimated from visual examination of the soil, a method that offers the advantage of being quick and of sampling a large volume. The content of ROM was high 6.1–6.4 g 100 g^?1 whole soil. However, particulates formed only a small fraction (6–9%) of the ROM. Despite the favourable ROM and structure, the soil was susceptible to compaction damage during seedbed preparation in wet soil after ploughing which reduced grain yield in some plots. Grazing by sheep before ploughing and date of ploughing had minor effects on soil quality. Grazing for 2 months prior to ploughing increased root length density in the upper topsoil in the following arable crop, possibly because of the higher quality of the animal and grass–clover residues. Conservation of soil quality was related more to secondary tillage and sowing operations after ploughing than to duration and timing of grazing.