Number and distribution of Australian veterinarians in 1981, 1991 and 2001

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the number and distribution of the Australian veterinary work-force, and to assess changes in it that have occurred since 1981. PROCEDURE: The postcode and gender of each veterinarian who was registered, resident and apparently working in each state and territory in 1981, 1991 and 2001 was obtained from veterinary board lists, entered on an Excel data base, and analysed using the statistical program SAS System 7 for Windows 95. The Official Australian Postcode Map was used to determine the location of postcode areas, and publications of the Australian Bureau of Statistics provided data on human populations. RESULTS: At the end of June 2001, 6358 veterinarians were registered, resident and apparently working in a state or territory of Australia. This was 100% higher than in 1981. Over the intervening 20 years, the number had increased by 3181, 2001 of whom were female. Between 1981 and 1991 the increase in major cities was 898 and in rural areas 682, of whom 357 were male. Between 1991 and 2001 the increase in cities was 1139 and rural areas 462, of whom only 98 were male. The density of veterinarians in Australia - 330/million people - is higher than in the UK (213/million), USA (218/million) and Canada (250/million). CONCLUSIONS: The relative number of veterinarians in Australia is now higher than in the UK, USA and Canada, and is likely to continue to increase. There is evidence of maldistribution, with many rural practices facing shortages of veterinarians with the experience and inclination to maintain veterinary services over the longer term, and some cities likely to become overcrowded with veterinarians.     

Current attitudes to,and use of,peri-operative analgesia in dogs and cats by veterinarians in New Zealand

AIM: To investigate the attitudes of veterinary practitioners in New Zealand to pain and analgesia, and their use of analgesic drugs, in dogs and cats.

METHODS: A questionnaire posted to 1,200 practising veterinarians was used to gather information about the use of analgesia in dogs and cats, assessment of pain, attitudes to pain relief, analgesic drugs and procedures used, factors affecting choice of analgesic agent, and veterinary demographics, continuing education and staffing.

RESULTS: Three hundred and twenty questionnaires with useable data were returned, a response rate of 28%. Male and female veterinarians were evenly represented. The analgesic agents most commonly used were morphine (opioids) and carprofen (a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug; NSAID). Use of peri-operative pain relief ranged from 50% for castration of cats to 91% for fracture repair in dogs. For most procedures, female veterinarians scored pain at a significantly higher level than their male colleagues. Fifty-eight percent of respondents considered their knowledge in the area of assessment and treatment of pain was adequate.

CONCLUSIONS: This survey was considered representative of veterinarians working in companion animal practice in New Zealand. Results indicated a relatively high use of peri-operative analgesia, including both pre-emptive and multi-modal analge- sia, in cats and dogs, although there was still some disparity between the perception of how painful a procedure was and the consequent use of pain relief.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The establishment of current attitudes and practices indicates to practising veterinarians how their own use of analgesics compares with that of their colleagues. It also provides information to educators on potential areas of focus, given that 42% of respondents felt their knowledge in the area of assessment and treatment of pain was inadequate.     

Current attitudes to, and use of, peri-operative analgesia in dogs and cats by veterinarians in New Zealand

AIM: To investigate the attitudes of veterinary practitioners in New Zealand to pain and analgesia, and their use of analgesic drugs, in dogs and cats. METHODS: A questionnaire posted to 1,200 practising veterinarians was used to gather information about the use of analgesia in dogs and cats, assessment of pain, attitudes to pain relief, analgesic drugs and procedures used, factors affecting choice of analgesic agent, and veterinary demographics, continuing education and staffing. RESULTS: Three hundred and twenty questionnaires with useable data were returned, a response rate of 28%. Male and female veterinarians were evenly represented. The analgesic agents most commonly used were morphine (opioids) and carprofen (a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug; NSAID). Use of peri-operative pain relief ranged from 50% for castration of cats to 91% for fracture repair in dogs. For most procedures, female veterinarians scored pain at a significantly higher level than their male colleagues. Fifty-eight percent of respondents considered their knowledge in the area of assessment and treatment of pain was adequate. CONCLUSIONS: This survey was considered representative of veterinarians working in companion animal practice in New Zealand. Results indicated a relatively high use of peri-operative analgesia, including both pre-emptive and multi-modal analgesia, in cats and dogs, although there was still some disparity between the perception of how painful a procedure was and the consequent use of pain relief. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The establishment of current attitudes and practices indicates to practising veterinarians how their own use of analgesics compares with that of their colleagues. It also provides information to educators on potential areas of focus, given that 42% of respondents felt their knowledge in the area of assessment and treatment of pain was inadequate.     

Tick paralysis in dogs and cats in Australia: treatment and prevention deliverables from 100 years of research

This review of tick paralysis caused by Ixodes holocyclus in Australia addresses the question: What are the key discoveries that have enabled effective treatment and prevention of tick paralysis in dogs and cats? Critical examination of 100 years of literature reveals that arguably only three achievements have advanced treatment and prevention of tick paralysis in animals. First, the most significant treatment advance was the commercial availability of tick antiserum in the 1930s. Hyperimmune serum currently remains the only specific anti-paralysis tick therapy available to veterinarians in Australia. Second, advances in veterinary critical care have increased survival rates of the most severely affected dogs and cats. Critical care advancements have been enabled through specialised veterinary hospitals that can provide appropriate care 24 h a day, and advanced training of veterinarians, veterinary nurses and technicians. Third, perhaps that biggest advance of all in the last 100 years of research has been the commercial availability of the isooxazoline class of acaricidal preventatives in Australia specifically for I. holocyclus. This highly effective class of preventatives offers long duration of action, low cost, spot-on or oral formulations and a low rate of adverse reactions. Animal owners and veterinarians now have the most useful tool of all – a reliable preventative. This review reveals the key events in research over the last 100 years and the tortuous pathway to delivering better treatment and preventative options for this enigmatic Australian parasite.     

Carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by veterinarians in Australia

Objective To estimate the prevalence of carriage of methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) among Australian veterinarians. Methods Individuals attending veterinary conferences in Australia in 2009 were recruited to provide nasal swabs and complete a questionnaire about their professional activities. Swabs were processed by standard methods for detecting MRSA and questionnaire responses were used to group veterinarians according to their areas of major work emphasis (species and practice type). Prevalence was estimated for each of these grouping and contingency tables and regression tree analysis used to explain the variation in MRSA carriage. Results Among the 771 respondents ‘industry and government veterinarians’ (controls) had the lowest prevalence of MRSA carriage at 0.9%. Veterinarians with horses as a major area of work emphasis had a prevalence of 11.8% (13‐fold that of controls) and those whose only major emphasis was horses had a prevalence of 21.4% (23‐fold that of controls). Veterinarians with dogs and cats as a major activity had a 4.9% prevalence (5‐fold that of controls). Prevalence rates for other major activities (pigs, dairy and beef cattle, avian and wildlife) were also increased, but were estimated from smaller numbers of respondents. Regression tree analysis clearly isolated equine veterinarians and dog and cat practitioners as groups at increased risk of carriage of MRSA. Conclusion Carriage of MRSA is a notable occupational health issue for veterinarians in clinical practice in Australia, particularly those who work with horses.     

Attitudes, procedures, and delivery of behavior services by veterinarians in small animal practice

OBJECTIVE: To survey veterinarians in small animal practice concerning their attitudes about delivery of behavior services, frequency of common behavior problems, manner in which services were provided, confidence in their clinical ability to treat these behavior problems, frequency of use of pharmacologic intervention, and number of dogs and cats euthanatized specifically because of behavior problems. DESIGN: Cross-sectional mail survey. SAMPLE POPULATION: Random sample of veterinarians in small animal practice in the United States. PROCEDURE: A self-administered mail survey was sent to a random sample of 2,000 veterinarians. Results were tabulated and statistically analyzed. RESULTS: It was estimated that approximately 224,000 dogs and cats were euthanatized annually in small animal veterinary practices in the United States because of behavior problems. Although veterinarians seemed unwilling to euthanatize animals for behavior problems solely on the basis of a client's request, many veterinarians did not routinely inquire about animal behavior and often were not confident in their clinical skills to treat behavior problems. Female veterinarians tended to be more proactive in addressing behavior problems and to have more positive attitudes than male veterinarians about the importance of animal behavior. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Efforts are needed to increase the number of veterinarians who systematically incorporate inquiries about animal behavior into routine clinical practice and to build the confidence of veterinarians for diagnosing and treating animal behavior problems.     

Forms of employment and species caseload of veterinary practitioners in New Zealand

A survey by means of a postal questionnaire was undertaken to investigate the patterns of work and the need for information of veterinary practitioners in New Zealand. Of the 670 eligible veterinarians, 399 practitioners (60 per cent) participated in the survey. Of these, 38 per cent were in large animal practice (less than 20 per cent of work devoted to cats and dogs) and 31 per cent were in small animal practice (more than 80 per cent of work with cats and dogs). The remaining 31 per cent were in mixed practice, with a workload intermediate between the other two groups. Across the entire sample of practitioners, cats and dogs took up the largest number of veterinary hours per person (1092 hours per year). Dairy cattle were second (438 hours), and horses third (302 hours). Deer and goats ranked next, and each used more veterinary hours per person than did either sheep or beef cattle. Other species comprised very minor parts of the overall workload. Women spent a much higher proportion of their working hours with small animals and a much lower proportion with horses than did men. For other species workload patterns were similar between men and women. In relation to employment of the practitioner group, women were under represented, compared with men, among those with responsibilities for the management of practices, even when account was taken of the fact that the women in the sample were younger. Fewer than one per cent of men in the sample were not employed full-time, whereas 15 per cent of the women were in part-time employment. The survey indicates that there has been a substantial change in the demographic structure of the veterinary profession and the forms of veterinary work carried out. It also shows that the differences in work and career patterns between men and women need more intensive study to improve the accuracy of predictions of future requirements for veterinary manpower.     

Reactions to tick antitoxin serum and the role of atropine in treatment of dogs and cats with tick paralysis caused by Ixodes holocyclus: a pilot survey

OBJECTIVE: To determine the incidence and nature of adverse reactions of dogs and cats to tick antitoxin serum and to re-evaluate the role of atropine in the treatment of tick paralysis. DESIGN: A retrospective questionnaire of veterinarians. PROCEDURE: Questionnaires were posted to 320 veterinarians in tick-endemic regions of Australia. Questions referred to dogs and cats treated for tick paralysis over a period of three years: the number treated, treatment protocols and adverse systemic reactions to tick antitoxin serum. Ninety completed questionnaires were returned and responses analysed. RESULTS: Veterinarians reported that approximately 3% of dogs exhibited adverse reactions immediately following treatment with tick antitoxin serum. Eighteen percent of these reactions were described as anaphylaxis, with the remaining 82% attributed to the Bezold-Jarisch reflex. Six percent of cats treated with tick antitoxin serum reacted adversely and the majority of reactions (63%) were ascribed to the Bezold-Jarisch reflex. Atropine was used routinely by 10% of responding veterinarians in the treatment of dogs and cats with tick paralysis. A similar number of veterinarians used atropine only in selected cases. Most veterinarians (76%) reported that they never used atropine in the treatment of tick paralysis in either dogs or cats. Within the survey population, premedication with atropine reduced the number of Bezold-Jarisch reactions following tick antitoxin administration approximately five-fold in dogs and four-fold in cats. CONCLUSIONS: Data from this pilot survey indicate that more cats than dogs have adverse systemic reactions to tick antitoxin serum and that the majority of these reactions in both dogs and cats could be related to the Bezold-Jarisch reflex. The number of reactions to tick antitoxin serum in dogs and cats could be significantly reduced by the routine use of atropine prior to administration of tick antitoxin serum.     

Prevalence of occupational exposures and protective practices in Australian female veterinarians

OBJECTIVE: To identify the prevalence of exposure to potentially harmful occupational hazards in Australian female veterinarians and to report factors associated with prevalence of occupational hazards in this profession. DESIGN: National cross-sectional survey of a cohort population. PROCEDURE: A self-administered questionnaire was mailed to 5748 veterinarians (males and females) graduating from Australian veterinary schools from 1960 to 2000. This paper reports the prevalence of occupational exposures in 1197 female veterinarians in their current job including radiation, anaesthetic gases, pesticides and long working hours. Comparisons were undertaken between respondents by practice type and decades of graduation. Multivariate logistic regression was undertaken to predict the risk for exposure to occupational hazards in female veterinarians by age, type of practice, graduation year and number of hours worked. RESULTS: The response rate for females was 59%. We found that age under 30 years, small and mixed animal practice, graduation year after 1990, and working more than 45 hours per week were all associated with greater exposure to putative risk factors. Mixed animal practitioners worked more than 45 hours per week (53%) and reported the highest exposure to anaesthetic gases (94%) and pesticides (54%). Twenty two percent of those who were exposed to anaesthetic gases did not have waste anaesthetic gas scavenging systems. Small animal practitioners reported they took more X-rays (90%). While taking X-rays, 56% of respondents reported physically restraining animals, and only one in five of respondents used film holders and lead screens. CONCLUSIONS: The high prevalence of potentially harmful exposures among female veterinarians and lack of use of protective equipment at work needs to be considered in developing and planning the safety of veterinary work.     

National study of the gastrointestinal parasites of dogs and cats in Australia

The prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in Australian pet dogs and cats was largely unknown prior to this study. Current recommendations for the prophylactic treatment of parasites in Australia are based on studies conducted 20-30 years ago. A total of 1400 canine and 1063 feline faecal samples were collected from veterinary clinics and refuges from across Australia. The overall prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in dogs and cats was 23.9% (CI 21.7-26.1) and 18.4% (CI 16.1-20.7), respectively. Overall Giardia was the most prevalent parasite in dogs (9.3% CI 7.8-10.8) followed by hookworm (6.7% CI 5.4-8.0). Isospora felis was the most prevalent parasite in cats (5.6% CI 4.2-7.0), followed by Toxocara cati (3.2% CI 2.1-4.3). In conclusion the prevalence of intestinal helminths in Australian pet dogs and cats is low. Consequently, consideration should be given to the future use of anthelmintics and continued emphasis on pet owner education as means of preventing infection.     

Estimated and predicted changes in the cat population of Australian households from 1979 to 2005

OBJECTIVE: To estimate and predict changes in the cat population of Australian households from 1979 to 2005. METHOD: Telephone surveys were used to estimate Australia's total household cat population for each year from 1979 to 1999. A simple mathematical model based on population characteristics in 1995 was used to predict future population changes to 2005. Estimates and predictions for 1996 to 1999 were compared to validate the model. RESULTS: Australia's household cat population increased steadily from 2.23 million in 1979 to peak at 3.24 million in 1988. Since then it has steadily declined to 2.60 million in 1999. The population size predicted from the mathematical model was similar to that from surveys for the years 1996 to 1999. It is predicted that the population will continue to decline to approximately 2.19 million in 2005. The proportion of Australian households owning cats fell from 31.1% in 1994 to 25.8% in 1999, while the average number of cats per cat-owning household remained relatively constant at 1.47. CONCLUSIONS: Australia's household cat population is decreasing, falling by 19% between 1988, when it reached its peak, and 1999. This contrasts with the US where the population increased by 13.9% over the same period. The decline in Australia appears to be due to a decrease in the total number of cat-owning households rather than the number of cats per cat-owning household. It is likely that this trend will continue unless there is a change in household pet ownership preferences in the meantime.     

History of the Australian college of veterinary scientists

The Australian College of Veterinary Scientists (ACVSc) has been promoting the advancement of the veterinary profession for 40 years through the provision of continuing education of Australian and New Zealand veterinarians. Formed in 1971 through the Australian Veterinary Association, after many years of debate over its role and necessity, the ACVSc became an independent entity in 1985. It currently provides examination-based qualifications of Membership and Fellowship of the College in 37 disciplines and has over 100 applicants every year. Highly valued as a mark of superior achievement in a veterinary field in Australia and New Zealand, the ACVSc is now working to have its Fellowship and Membership qualifications recognised in Europe and North America, thereby increasing the standing of Australian veterinarians around the world.     

Survey on small animal anaesthesia

OBJECTIVE: To ascertain anaesthetic practices currently for dogs and cats in Australia. METHODS: A questionnaire was distributed to 4,800 veterinarians throughout Australia, seeking data on numbers of dogs and cats anaesthetised per week; drug preferences for anaesthetic premedication, induction and maintenance; use of tracheal intubation, supplemental nitrous oxide and anaesthetic antagonists; and types of vaporisers, breathing systems and anaesthetic monitoring devices used or available. Additional questions concerned proportions of different animal types seen in the practice, and the respondent's university and year of graduation. RESULTS: The response rate was 19%; 95% of respondents graduated from Australian universities, about half since 1985. Most responses (79%) came from mainly small animal practices. On average 16 dogs and 12 cats were anaesthetised each week. Premedication was used more often in dogs than cats, with acepromazine and atropine most favoured in both species. For anaesthetic induction, thiopentone was most preferred in dogs and alphaxalone/alphadolone in cats. Inhaled agents, especially halothane, were preferred for maintenance in both species. Most respondents usually employed tracheal intubation when using inhalational anaesthetic maintenance, but intubation rates were lower during injectable anaesthetic maintenance and a minority of respondents provided supplemental O2. Nitrous oxide was administered regularly by 13% of respondents. The agents most frequently used to speed recovery from anaesthesia were doxapram and yohimbine. The most widely used vaporisers were the Fluotec Mark III and the Stephens machine. Most (95%) respondents used a rebreathing circuit for large dogs and a non-rebreathing system was used for small dogs by 68% of respondents. Most respondents (93%) indicated some form of aid was available to monitor general anaesthesia: the three most mentioned were an apnoea alarm, oesophageal stethoscope and electrocardiogram. CONCLUSION: Diverse approaches were evident, but there appeared to be less variation in anaesthetising dogs: premedication was more frequent and less varied in type, while thiobarbituates dominated for induction and inhalants for maintenance. Injectable maintenance techniques had substantial use in cats, but little in dogs. Evident disparity between vaporisers available and circuits used suggested either confusion in terminology or incorrect use of some vaporisers in-circuit. While most respondents used monitoring equipment or a dedicated observer to invigilate anaesthesia, the common reliance on apnoea alarms is of concern, because of unproven reliability and accuracy.     

Training in animal handling for veterinary students at Charles Sturt University, Australia

Charles Sturt University in New South Wales, Australia, is responding to a national need for veterinarians with the skills and attributes to fulfill roles in rural practice and the large-animal industries. Rural practitioners must competently and confidently handle a range of large animals if they are to build a relationship of mutual trust with clients and deliver effective animal-health services. Training in animal handling begins in the first year of the course with highly structured small-group practical classes involving cattle, horses, sheep, dogs, cats, pigs, poultry, and laboratory animals (rats and mice). Other experiences with animals in the first three years build on basic animal-handling skills while performing other veterinary activities. Students who provide documented evidence of prior animal-handling experiences are admitted, and learning and teaching strategies aim to enhance skills and knowledge. Rigorous examinations use a competency-based approach prior to extramural placements on farms and in veterinary practices. A continuing process of evaluation, review, and refinement will ensure continual improvement and graduate veterinarians with strong skills in animal handling.     

Demographic profile of the veterinary profession in New Zealand, 1985

The demographic characteristics of the veterinary profession in New Zealand are examined using information supplied by registered veterinarians to the Veterinary Surgeons Board in their applications for annual practising certificates in 1985. Comparisons are made with the veterinary professions in other similar countries, and with the medical and paramedical professions in New Zealand. In 1985 1308 registered veterinarians were working in New Zealand and 304 were overseas, whereas in 1976 the equivalent figures were 748 and 182. This represents an increase of 73% in the number of registered veterinarians in the last 10 years. Eighteen percent of veterinarians were female. The mean age of veterinarians was 38 years, but females in the profession were on average much younger (32 years) than males (42 years). Clinical practice provides employment for 70% of veterinarians: of these 59% work principally with farm animals and 41% with non-farm animals. The remaining veterinarians are employed by Government (22%), University (5%) and Industry (3%). The current demographic structure of the profession has been markedly influenced by the opening of New Zealand's only veterinary school at Massey University in 1963. Differences from other medical professional populations in New Zealand and overseas principally reflect the marked change in the number and sex ratio of graduates entering the veterinary profession since that time. It will take about another twenty years before the population reaches a stable age and sex structure, assuming that current graduation patterns persist throughout that period. Because the structure of the population is changing, considerable caution is needed in predicting future employment trends from data for a single year.     

Demographic profile of the veterinary profession in New Zealand, 1985

The demographic characteristics of the veterinary profession in New Zealand are examined using information supplied by registered veterinarians to the Veterinary Surgeons Board in their applications for annual practising certificates in 1985. Comparisons are made with the veterinary professions in other similar countries, and with the medical and paramedical professions in New Zealand. In 1985 1308 registered veterinarians were working in New Zealand and 304 were overseas, whereas in 1976 the equivalent figures were 748 and 182. This represents an increase of 73% in the number of registered veterinarians in the last 10 years. Eighteen percent of veterinarians were female. The mean age of veterinarians was 38 years, but females in the profession were on average much younger (32 years) than males (42 years). Clinical practice provides employment for 70% of veterinarians: of these 59% work principally with farm animals and 41% with non-farm animals. The remaining veterinarians are employed by Government (22%), University (5%) and Industry (3%). The current demographic structure of the profession has been markedly influenced by the opening of New Zealand's only veterinary school at Massey University in 1963. Differences from other medical professional populations in New Zealand and overseas principally reflect the marked change in the number and sex ratio of graduates entering the veterinary profession since that time. It will take about another twenty years before the population reaches a stable age and sex structure, assuming that current graduation patterns persist throughout that period. Because the structure of the population is changing, considerable caution is needed in predicting future employment trends from data for a single year.     

Anaesthesia and analgesia for dogs and cats in South Africa undergoing sterilisation and with osteoarthritis--an update from 2000

A survey was conducted in 2000 into the use of analgesic drugs by veterinarians in South Africa. This survey was repeated in 2005 to establish whether the use of analgesic drugs has increased and which analgesic drugs are being used for acute pain and osteoarthritis. The number of sterilisations performed and the number of new cases of osteoarthritis in dogs and cats was estimated. It is estimated that approximately 260000 cats are operated on each year in South Africa and that 150000 cats are sterilised. Five hundred thousand dogs undergo surgery, of which 242000 are sterilised. It appears that the number of surgical procedures performed in South Africa has decreased. The estimated death rate following anaesthesia has remained unchanged at 1:1004. Overall, the use of analgesics by South African veterinarians has increased significantly. Fifty-six per cent of cats and 74% of dogs were given peri-operative analgesics but this increased to 94% and 84% after including pre-anaesthetic medications with analgesic properties. The use of opioids (morphine and buprenorphine) and propofol has increased significantly. Approximately 253000 dogs and 33000 cats with osteoarthritis are seen by veterinarians in South Africa annually. The recognition by veterinarians of osteoarthritis in cats appears to be poor and is in need of attention. Carprofen and glucosamine/chondroitin are the most commonly used agents for the treatment of osteoarthritis. Details of the drugs used by veterinarians are given. Knowledge of analgesic drugs has increased significantly over the last 5 years. Continuing education is thought to have played an important role in the changes reported in this study.     

Epidemiologic analysis of oral and pharyngeal cancer in dogs, cats, horses, and cattle.

Four hundred sixty-nine oral-pharyngeal malignancies diagnosed in dogs, cats, horses, and cattle and submitted to the Viterinary Medical Data Program between March 1, 1964, and Dec 31, 1974, were analyzed. Of these cases, 84% were in dogs. The most frequent oral-pharyngeal cancer in dogs was melanoma; in cats and horses, it was squamous cell carcinoma. In dogs, the risk of developing melanoma increased more with age than did the risk of developing squamous cell carcinoma and fibrosarcoma. Male dogs had significantly greater risk of developing fibrosarcomas and melanomas than did female dogs. The German Shorthaired Pointer, Weimaraner, Golden Retriever, Boxer, and Cocker Spaniel breeds had significantly higher risk and Dachshunds and Beagles had significantly lower risk, as compared with all breeds combined. There was no significant difference between observed and expected numbers of tonsillar carcinomas diagnosed at veterinary colleges located in small urban areas (less than 50,000 persons) as compared with large urban populations (greater than 500,000).     

Rural veterinary services in Western Australia: Part A. Government veterinary services

OBJECTIVE: To determine the status of rural veterinary services in Western Australia. PROCEDURE: Two questionnaires were mailed to eligible, registered veterinary surgeons in Western Australia in 2006. The first was mailed to government veterinarians and the second to private practitioners in rural practice. Part A presents the replies from government veterinary officers and Part B the replies from rural practitioners. Replies were transferred to Microsoft Excel for analysis. RESULTS: Sixty-seven per cent of government veterinary officers responded to the questionnaire. Eighty per cent of these had been in the service for 20 years or more and their average age was 54. Work with sheep and beef cattle occupied 75% of their time, with dairy cattle receiving 10% and pigs and poultry less than 10%. The majority of respondents reported changes in the attitude of farmers to the service as a result of rural recessions and the decision to make a direct charge for government veterinary services. Although most respondents thought that the government veterinary service would continue in the future there were differences of opinion as to what form that would take. CONCLUSION: Government veterinary services in Western Australia are undergoing major changes, with the service decreasing in size and scope. Recently the Department of Agriculture has been renamed the Department of Agriculture and Food and it is likely that the role of its veterinary officers will change accordingly.     

Antimicrobial labelling in Australia: a threat to antimicrobial stewardship?

Antimicrobial resistance is a public health emergency, placing veterinary antimicrobial use under growing scrutiny. Antimicrobial stewardship, through appropriate use of antimicrobials, is a response to this threat. The need for antimicrobial stewardship in Australian veterinary practices has had limited investigation. A 2016 survey undertaken to investigate antimicrobial usage patterns by Australian veterinarians found that antimicrobial dose rates were varied and often inappropriate. Doses of procaine penicillin in horses and cattle were often low, with 68% and 90% of respondents, respectively, reporting doses that were unlikely to result in plasma concentrations above minimum inhibitory concentrations for common equine and bovine pathogens. Frequency of penicillin administration was also often inappropriate. Gentamicin doses in horses were largely appropriate (89% of dose rates appropriate), but 9% of respondents reported twice daily dosing. Amoxycillin and amoxycillin‐clavulanate were administered at the appropriate doses, or above, to dogs and cats by 54% and 70% of respondents, respectively. Here, we explore the potential reasons for inappropriate antimicrobial dose regimens and report that antimicrobial labels often recommend incorrect dose rates and thus may be contributing to poor prescribing practices. Changes to legislation are needed to ensure that antimicrobial drug labels are regularly updated to reflect the dose needed to effectively and safely treat common veterinary pathogens. This will be especially true if changes in legislation restrict antimicrobial use by veterinarians to the uses and doses specified on the label, thus hampering the current momentum towards improved antimicrobial stewardship.