RD—Rural Development: An Engineering Perspective on Sustainable Smallholder Farming in Developing Countries

The low productivity of smallholder farming systems and enterprises is attributed mainly to the limited resources of farming households and to the application of inappropriate skills and practices that can lead to land degradation. Land productivity may be raised by improved soil and water management and by mechanization (considering the whole spectrum of power sources) that makes better use of human labour and other resources. However, mechanization programmes, which facilitate soil and water management, have to consider cultural and social factors as well as the immediate technical and economic issues. The livelihoods approach provides a framework for dealing with such considerations, which can be elicited through the participation of farmers in the research and development activities.Examples are given of participatory research (i.e. research in which scientists and farmers participate as partners) to raise smallholder productivity sustainably in India, Zimbabwe and Latin America. Sustainability is a key issue for economic security in the longer term, and depends on many interacting factors both within and outside the tasks of crop production. The most significant of these factors are discussed and it is emphasized that involving farmers provides a reliable means of accounting for them and enabling the farmers to apply new knowledge to raise productivity, but within the contexts of their own livelihood strategies.     

No farmer left behind in sustainable biofuel production

Societal concerns about the social and environmental impacts of biofuel production are driving producers to adopt better management practices. Existing certification schemes for sustainable biofuel production are, however, biased towards industrial-scale producers that have the financial capital and economies of scale to meet sustainability and certification objectives. Smallholder farmers in developing countries, by contrast, often lack the means and capacity to do so. Some of the challenges faced by smallholders include high certification costs, insufficient institutional capacity, inadequate financial and social incentives, poor group organization and lack of external support. Drawing lessons from existing certification programs, we argue that proponents of sustainable practices and standards must fully appreciate the complex realities of smallholder production systems. We provide policy recommendations for ensuring that no farmer is left behind in the quest to increase sustainable biofuel production.     

Resource flows,crops and soil fertility management in smallholder farming systems in semi‐arid Zimbabwe

Poor soil fertility and erratic rains are major constraints to crop production in semi‐arid environments. In the smallholder farming systems of sub‐Saharan Africa, these constraints are manifested in frequent crop failures and endemic food insecurity. We characterized a semi‐arid smallholder farming system in south‐western Zimbabwe to assess crop production, nutrient use and factors that constrain productivity. The farming system was studied using resource flow mapping, farmer interviews and calculations of crop production over three cropping seasons (2002/2003, 2003/2004 and 2004/2005) to capture variability between years. Farmers were categorized into three groups: better resourced, medium resourced and poorly resourced. Better resourced farmers produced adequate grain for basic household consumption, except in the drought year (2002/2003). Poorly resourced farmers had large grain deficits, whereas the medium resourced class had smaller deficits. Better resourced and medium resourced farmers produced adequate amounts of staple cereal in two of the seasons, while poorly resourced farmers produced inadequate amounts of food in all three seasons. All farmers produced less than 300 kg/ha of legumes per season. Lack of seed was cited as the main reason for poor legume production. Better resourced farmers used animal manure (2000–5000 kg per season) and some fertilizer on their cereal crops, while the medium resourced group used less manure (1000 kg or less) and no fertilizer. The use of manure varied strongly across the years. Poorly resourced farmers used no nutrient inputs on any of their crops. All groups had negative nitrogen balances during the three cropping seasons, although the values varied strongly between seasons. Investigation of the potential strategies for developing sustainable production systems are required to address the problems of food security in the semi‐arid parts of the country and the region.     

Adoption of technologies that enhance soil carbon sequestration in East Africa. What influence farmers’ decision?

The last two decades have seen a rise of interest in the adoption and diffusion of agricultural technologies aimed at improving the sustainability of agricultural lands among smallholder farmers in developing countries. This papers set out to understand factors that influence the adoption of technologies that enhance soil carbon sequestration among smallholder farmers, using secondary data recorded in the World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) database from 45 to 50 smallholders’ farmers in selected places in Kenya and Ethiopia respectively. A Probit model was used to analyse whether socio-economic, institutional, off-farm income, technical know-how, farmers’ perceptions, and land use characteristics influences the adoption of technologies that enhance soil carbon sequestration. The results show that smallholder farmers that positively perceived net benefits of the soil carbon enhancing technologies were more likely to adopt such technologies that enhance soil carbon sequestration in both countries. Access to off-farm income and land ownership with title deeds were also found to be positively associated with adoption. Off-farm income positively influences adoption among farmer with a moderate income (100-500US$ per year) but not the rich (>500US$) farmers. Moderate to high level of skills and technical know-how required for implementing and maintaining a technology on the farm had a negative influence on adoption. This shows that interventions, aimed at addressing specific factors such as inadequate skills and knowledge, change in perception among farmers, and off-farm income are likely to have the greatest impact in decisions relating to the adoption of the soil carbon enhancing practices among farmers in East Africa.     

Enhancing Household Food Security Under Changing Climatic Conditions: A Case Study of Gokwe North and Hurungwe Districts in Zimbabwe

The effects of climate change are largely felt by smallholder farmers in southern Africa who rely on rain-fed agricultural production. This study used data from a cross-sectional household to investigate the factors that influence a household's adaptive capacity. Results show that there is a positive and statistically significant correlation between receiving information on crop production (p <.01), access to early warning information (p <.01 and adaptive capacity. Without adaptation, it is impossible for smallholder farmers to enhance food security. The study recommends that there is need to improve farmers' knowledge of climate change adaptation technologies and access to early warning information.     

Access to Information for Farm-Level Decision-Making

Radio is an important medium for conveying agricultural information among farmers in remote areas. This study assessed the channels of information available to four farming communities in Ghana and analyzed stakeholder networks in information generation and dissemination. About 50% of the farmers expressed a willingness to pay for relevant information, though they think general farm information should be free to all. Farmers ranked other farmers as their most important and least expensive sources. Farm-level decision-making requires timely, adequate, and appropriate information, which can bring smallholder farmers closer to their world competitors through increased production, effective marketing, and increased incomes.     

Genetic characterization of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) varieties conserved in Vietnam through SCoT marker-based polymorphisms

Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution - Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) production sustains millions of smallholder farmers and their families around the globe, and also powers a thriving industry of...     

Farmers’ adoption of maize (Zea mays L.) hybrids and the persistence of landraces in Southwest China: implications for policy and breeding

This paper examines changes in the distribution of maize hybrids and landraces in the mountainous areas of southwest China over 1998–2008, farmers’ reasons for cultivar adoption and the implications for national policies in relation to seed production and breeding, based on baseline data and a survey conducted in Guangxi, Yunnan and Guizhou. The study traced the dynamic changes in the adoption of hybrids and landraces in farmers’ fields, explored how individual farmer’s choices can influence local landrace distribution, and investigated the space for conducive policy and innovative action for on-farm conservation of maize genetic resources. The research showed that although there is strong farmers’ interest in accessing modern maize hybrids, farmers also express strong reasons for maintaining at least some of the landraces that satisfy local agronomic context and social preferences. Farmers recognized that hybrids have a number of advantages but they also indicated some disadvantages of the current available hybrids e.g. with respect to seed quality, local adaptability, taste and cost of seeds, but also lack of information on the performances of the new hybrids. Based on farmers’ reasoning and experiences, the requirements have been identified for improving yield combined with local preferences (agronomic, cultural and socio-economic). The paper concludes by identifying options for how China might seek to develop resilient seed systems for smallholder farmers in poor areas, under changing climatical conditions and volatile markets. Participatory Plant Breeding is among the options considered for bringing farmers’ needs into conservation and breeding strategies for improving local adaptation.     

Delivering Actionable Plant Health Knowledge to Smallholder Farmers Through the Plantwise Program

Delivering actionable, high-quality plant health knowledge to smallholder farmers and the extension workers who support them is a major challenge. Few farmers access information via the Internet and remote locations make them difficult to reach. The Plantwise program has been working with local partners to implement processes and delivery channels for reaching more farmers with the agricultural advice they need to grow more and lose less to pests. Responding to feedback, content types and formats have been improved, quality control and updating mechanisms have been implemented, and new tools have been developed to deliver information to all who need it.     

On-farm diversity of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties in east Hararghe Zone,Eastern Ethiopia

Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution - Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important source of food and income. However, its on-farm diversity and conservation by smallholder farmers is not...     

Targeted management of organic resources for sustainably increasing soil organic carbon: Observations and perspectives for resource use and climate adaptations in northern Ghana

Since soil organic matter (SOM) buffers against impacts of climatic variability, the objective of this study was to assess on-farm distribution of SOM and propose realistic options for increasing SOM and thus the adaptation of smallholder farmers to climate change and variability in the interior northern savannah of Ghana. Data and information on spatial distribution of soil organic carbon (SOC), current practices that could enhance climate adaptation including management of organic resources were collected through biophysical assessments and snap community surveys. Even though homestead fields were more frequently cultivated, higher amounts of SOC (15?±?2?g?kg^?1) were observed in homesteads when compared to the periphery cropped sections in bushes (SOC?=?9?±?1?g?kg^?1). Possibly, a combination of household wastes, droppings of domestic animals that are mostly reared in a free-range system, manures applied to crops and cultural norms of chieftaincy, which cause short-term fallowing of homestead fields could account for the differences in SOC. Use of organic resources for soil amendment among farmers was low (31% of interviewed farmers) due largely to ignorance of fertilizer values of manures and residues, traditions for bush-burning and competing use of organic resources for fuels. Our findings suggest a need for effective management practices, training and awareness aimed at improving management of organic resources and, consequently, increasing SOC and resilience to climate-change-induced risks.     

Food Safety Considerations for CGIAR Research

ABSTRACT

In view of the CGIAR's identification of food safety as an area requiring priority attention to safeguard the economic interests of smallholder farmers and the poor, this paper aims to provide a general overview of the level of research and development attention accorded by the scientific and development community to this theme. This baseline survey of work undertaken exposes the nature of the problem; the food safety situation of the poor; food safety concerns in technology and policy research in the CGIAR; the role of capacity-building; and, subsequently, attempts to provide pointers to the CGIAR research community along which it could proceed. It is clear that within the CGIAR System, there has been no set strategy to provide guidance on the topic, and that work done to date has been largely of an ad hoc nature. The formulation of a strategic framework to guide the incorporation of food safety considerations in CGIAR research is now essential and would prevent duplication, capture synergies from the currently isolated activities and promote greater efficiency.     

基于GIS的村级小麦玉米高产高效管理系统构建与验证

小农户是我国农业生产的主体,由此导致生产中存在产量和资源利用效率地块间变异大的问题。为了提高作物的产量和氮肥利用效率,实现小农户地块的精准管理,本文以GIS技术为平台,利用C#语言,建立村级小麦玉米高产高效管理系统,并通过田间对比试验和农户调研分别进行了系统效果的验证及其可行性评价。结果表明,该系统以农户地块为单元,通过信息查询、分析、作物管理决策、系统管理等功能模块,实现了村域每个农户地块的高产高效（氮肥高效）技术推荐。两年22个对比试验结果表明,与农民习惯相比,系统推荐的高产高效处理小麦季平均增产10.8%,氮肥偏生产力提高28.5%;玉米季平均增产10.3%,氮肥偏生产力增加16.9%,实现小麦玉米产量和氮肥利用效率的同步提高。农户调研结果表明,农户对推荐系统的认可程度较高,利用该系统进行技术推荐具有可行性;农户对小麦玉米的各项推荐技术认知度较高,但采用率差异较大,其中小麦优良品种采用率可达94%,但小麦精量播种技术的采用率只有29%,玉米增密技术和晚收技术的采用率仅仅2%和35%;受科技人员技术推荐影响较大的试验户和辐射户的认知率与采用率均高于普通农户,说明通过技术服务可以促进小麦玉米高产高效管理技术的应用。总之,本系统实现了小农户地块作物管理技术的辅助决策,具有显著增产增效作用,可以为村级实现大面积的作物高产高效提供支持。     

Land degradation: socioeconomic and environmental causes and consequences in the eastern Mediterranean

Land degradation is a natural and socioeconomic cause–effect phenomenon that is widespread all over the world. This study investigated the socioeconomic factors and causes of land degradation (e.g. population growth and urbanization, poverty, overgrazing, pollution, biodiversity, erosion) in the eastern part of the Mediterranean region. The study revealed a significant land use change from agricultural and natural vegetation to urbanized areas due to the high population increase during the last ca. 80 years (51‐times the magnitude of the total built‐up area). The high poverty rate that exists in the area (57 per cent of the population can be classed as ‘poor’) has resulted in damaging environmental practices (overgrazing and intensive usage of natural plants); we found 83 per cent of the farmers admitted to the adoption of these practices. Poverty has also resulted in an inverse and significant correlation (at the 95 per cent confidence level) between holding size and the sale of land for urban uses. We also noted that 75 per cent of the smallholder farmers surveyed had sold their lands for immediate benefits to cope with poverty. This relation was affected by the education level of the farmers; we found a direct and significant (95 per cent confidence level) correlation existed between these factors. Overgrazing was practised by 70 per cent of the farmers and was found to be one of the most important environmental consequences of land use change (1600 ha have been transformed from natural grazing to built‐up (urban) in the study area). Socio‐economic induced land degradation demands efforts to improve farmer environmental awareness as well as environmental standards, laws and bylaws and the reduction of mismanagement of land. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Better land husbandry in Honduras: towards the new paradigm in conserving soil,water and productivity

Land shortages are forcing more smallholder farmers to cultivate tropical steeplands. Resulting accelerated soil erosion is being countered by the promotion of soil conservation (SC) technologies, such as cross‐slope barriers, which aim to reduce soil loss and preserve land productivity. However, farmer adoption rates tend to be low. This is often attributed to the farmers' conservatism or lack of education. Research in Honduras's steeplands demonstrates that farmers value SC, provided that it promotes agricultural production. Field research from 1995–98, involving farmed test plots on slopes greater than 35 per cent (19 degrees), demonstrates that at least one typical SC technology—live barriers of Vetiveria zizanioides (vetiver grass)—has little or no impact on maize yield. This means that farmers see little benefit from their investment in the SC method. They find that erratic rainfall, pests and diseases and a lack of economic resources are far greater threats to their livelihoods than soil erosion. Consequently, SC has a low priority. Keeping soil in place avoids major off‐farm disbenefits. However, the SC technique tested here made no discernible difference to slope foot sediment yields during the life of this study. In sum, a new approach is needed. Promoting ‘Better Land Husbandry’ strategies, which seek to combine farmers' concerns about productivity with conservationists' concerns about reducing soil erosion—often via cover‐management—seem to be the best way forward. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Farmers' perception of environmental degradation and their adoption of improved management practices in Alxa,China

The environment and the natural resource base have been severely degraded in Alxa League, western Inner Mongolia, China, over the past half‐century. This study reports surveys that reveal farmers' perceptions of environmental degradation and their adoption of improved management practices in this poor and remote desert region. Surveys were made in villages that had been engaged in a large environmental rehabilitation and management project [Alxa League environmental rehabilitation and management project (ALERMP)] and those that had not. The survey results showed that farmers perceived environmental degradation in terms of increased frequency and severity of sandstorms, movement of sand dunes, deterioration of pasture quality and declines in groundwater depth and quality. Farmers had low adoption rates for improved management practices, ranging from zero to a maximum of 28·5 per cent for the most adopted practice. A Tobit model analysis showed that the education level of farmers, the availability of extension services and whether farmers had participated in ALERMP were highly significantly correlated with the farmers' perception of degradation. The farmers' adoption of improved management practices was found to be significantly correlated only with whether they had participated in ALERMP. This shows that specific extension activities of the type possible in large and well‐funded projects are required if farmers are to recognise degradation and adopt improved management practices. The promotion of farmer education and strengthening of extension services are recommended as the best policy strategies for improving environmental management in this region. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Farmers’ practices,utilization, conservation and marketing of Bambara groundnut (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vigna subterranea</Emphasis> (L.) Verdc.) in Dosso Region,Western Niger

Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) is one of the important legume crop grown in marginal soils of sub-Saharan Africa. Despite its importance in food security and income generation for small scale farmers, it remains as a neglected and underutilized crop and the productivity is very low in the field due to the lack of improved varieties and lack adequate farming practices. Thus, the aim of this study is to investigate all aspects related to its production including source of seeds supply and farmers management practices, utilization, conservation and marketing. The results revealed that in this Region of Western Niger Bambara groundnut was mainly produced by female (95%) compared to male (5%). Farmers use their own recycled seed (80%) which is the main source followed by provision of recycled seeds by relatives (5%) and purchasing from the local market (15%). Also, this finding shows that there is a lack of adequate farming practices and the crop is mostly produced on inherited land without any inputs as reported by 80% of the respondents. Mono-cropping is mainly practiced by 97% of farmers while a few of them do rotation (2%) and most of pre and postharvest handling technologies are traditional. The most important traits preferred by Bambara farmers is seed colour (cream color), followed by high grain yield, early maturity and cooking ability according to the respondents with 98, 92, 88 and 72% respectively. Several features have to be taking into account in order to promote Bambara nut including its ability to do well in harsh conditions, its nutritional benefits, and its ability to fix nitrogen, thereby increasing soil fertility in mixed cropping systems.