Biosecurity practices of beef cow-calf producers

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate biosecurity practices of cow-calf producers. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. SAMPLE POPULATION: 2,713 cow-calf operations were used in phase 1 of the study, and 1,190 cow-calf operations were used in phase 2. PROCEDURE: Producers were contacted for a personal interview between Dec 30, 1996 and Feb 3, 1997 regarding their management practices. Noninstitutional operations with 1 or more beef cows were eligible to participate in the study. Producers who participated in the first phase of the study and who had > or = 5 beef cows were requested to continue in the study and were contacted by a veterinarian or animal health technician who administered further questionnaires. All contacts for the second phase of the study were made between Mar 3, 1997 and Apr 30, 1997. Additional data on use of various vaccines, testing of imported cattle for brucellosis, Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, bovine viral diarrhea, and tuberculosis as well as potential for feed contamination were collected during the second phase of the study. RESULTS: Producers commonly engaged in management practices that increased risk of introducing disease to their cattle such as importing cattle, failing to quarantine imported cattle, and communal grazing. Producers inconsistently adjusted for the increased risk of their management practices by increasing the types of vaccines given, increasing the quarantine time or proportion of imported animals quarantined, or increasing testing for various diseases in imported animals. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Cow-calf herds are at risk for disease exposure from outside sources when cattle are introduced to the herd, and producers do not always adjust management practices such as vaccination schedules and quarantine procedures appropriately to minimize this risk. Veterinary involvement in education of producers regarding biosecurity risks and development of rational and economical biosecurity plans is needed.     

The 2000 National Beef Quality Audits: Views of Producers,Packers, and Merchandisers on Current Quality Characteristics of Beef

In 1991 and 1995, National Beef Quality Audits (NBQA) benchmarked beef industry quality challenges. Face-to-face interviews identified hide defects and lack of live cattle uniformity as leading quality challenges for packers and excess external fat and lack of uniformity/ consistency as leading quality challenges for merchandisers (purveyors, retailers, and restaurateurs). For NBQA-2000, surveys replaced interviews to solicit producers and to increase packer and merchandiser opinions. Seedstock generators and cow-calf producers (n = 2,308) most frequently (P < 0.05) cited improved genetics using expected progeny differences, changed injection site location, and improved genetics using physical characterization as management adjustments made since 1991. Stocker/ backgrounders and feedlot operators (n = 740) most frequently (P < 0.05) made adjustments in injection site location, handling, and genetic types of cattle. Seedstock generators and cow-calf producers indicated that previous audits had a “strong” (18.7%) or “moderate” (57.6%) impact on management changes made since 1991 compared with 15.3% or 62.7%, respectively, for stocker/ backgrounders and feedlot operators. Packers (n = 29) and merchandisers (n = 113) indicated that past audits had a “strong” (6.9% and 9.5%, respectively) or “moderate” (55.2% and 71.8%, respectively) impact on quality/consistency improvements of cattle, carcasses, and cuts. Responses from production sectors revealed lack of live cattle uniformity, inadequate tenderness, and insufficient marbling to be the greatest (P < 0.05) quality challenges currently facing the beef industry. Merchandisers revealed insufficient marbling, lack of cut uniformity, and inadequate tenderness to be the greatest (P < 0.05) quality challenges. Results will aide in development and implementation of beef quality assurance principles and will provide added stimulus for producers to improve beef quality and consumer satisfaction.     

Demographics of the Canadian cow-calf industry for the period 1991 to 2011

The Canadian cow-calf sector is about to undergo major transformative change because of shifts in Canada’s population demographics. To understand the impact of this change on the Canadian beef cow-calf sector, Statistics Canada census data from 1991 to 2011 were analyzed for trends. From 2006 to 2011, the number of Canadian cow-calf producers and operations decreased by 24.6% and 26.0%, respectively. Furthermore, as of 2011, 61.9% of producers were > 50 y of age. The number of cow-calf producers is positioned to decrease by another 40% by 2021. If Canada’s cow-calf industry is to maintain its current levels of production then the average herd size will need to increase markedly. The shift towards fewer but larger operations will impact the type of veterinary services demanded by cow-calf producers, and the number of veterinarians required to service this industry. Veterinary colleges will need to examine whether they are producing graduates who will meet the changing demands of livestock producers.     

Arkanas Beef Improvement Program—An Integrated Resource Management Program for Cattle Producers

The Arkansas Beef Improvement Program (ABIP) uses an integrated resource management approach to enhance efficiency and profitability of cattle producers. An executive committee was created to determine the overall program direction and guidelines. Educational methods used to demonstrate cost-effective beef cattle and forage management practices and transfer knowledge included whole-farm programs, special projects, workshops, Extension agent training, field days, newsletters, and popular press articles. The whole-farm programs demonstrated the importance of managing resources in an integrated management philosophy. Herd break-even decreased 28.2% (P<0.03), average specified cost per animal unit (AU) tended to decrease (P<0.19), mature cow-calf crop percentage tended to increase (P<0.14), and return over specified cost per AU increased 121.7% (P<0.05) from yr 1 to yr 5. Special projects (breeding and calving seasons, replacement heifer development, hay quality, forage testing and supplemental feeding, stockpiled forages, pasture renovation, cow herd performance, and market cow management) addressed specific beef cattle and forage management concerns. Production and financial parameters were measured to evaluate the progress of the whole farm and special projects. A majority of cooperators and Extension agents thought their ABIP experience was most valuable (66 and 57%, respectively), and 100 and 97% of the cooperators and Extension agents, respectively, stated ABIP fulfilled their expectations. The ABIP accomplished its educational objectives and made an impact on cooperators and Extension agents. Surveys affirmed that ABIP should be a high priority Extension program.     

Surgery of the prepuce and penis.

Diseases involving the reproductive tract of bulls are a significant cause of economic and genetic loss to beef (eg, cow-calf units) and dairy (eg, bull studs) cattle producers. Injury or infectious disease may cause these abnormalities. Some injuries are amenable to surgical treatment. Surgical restoration of breeding bulls allows preservation of genetics and economic productivity for the owner of affected bulls. Accurate selection of surgical candidates is necessary to optimize prognosis.     

A Perspective on Forage Production in Canada

Over the past decade, the cattle industry has experienced practically a full circle. With the promising beef prices in the early 1970s, with the glut of grain and a generous assist from government incentive programs, the forage acreage and cattle population have increased at a record rate. By 1974, the tide began to turn — grain prices went up sharply and beef prices became sluggish — and by 1976 a major crisis faced the producers. The cattle industry which had been developing on a cheap grain economy was now obliged to rely more on forage for its survival. Unfortunately, the forage was not existent and the only salvation of the industry was the gift of Providence — weather patterns that provided ample moisture conditions and above normal forage crops, the utilization of cereals and the intervention of government cow-calf support programs.Over the past year, the cycle was completed and record beef prices again prevail. The barley bins are full again and the cattlemen are gearing up for a few fat years. Demands for forage seed are brisk and the seeding down of forage acreage is bound to increase substantially over the next few years. And with this increase, cattle population expansion is bound to follow: how much expansion can the economy support? The production cost factors will determine the extent, but one can almost be certain that any expansion will either be modest or of short duration. At least, it should be.If the cattle industry is to establish solid foundations, it cannot be dependent upon the instability of a grain surplus-shortage position. With the present resources and the potential for developing it in direct competition with other crops, one can only expect a small and steady expansion over a long time span. One must agree with the range researchers and specialists of the Canada Research Stations at Lethbridge and Swift Current that pasture and range will continue to be the limiting factors of cattle expansion as they have been for the past 50 years. It is interesting to note that in the Prairie Provinces at least, the number of livestock raised each year has not changed since 1930 although cattle have largely replaced the horses.It is easy to speculate on paper that Canada can double in the next 20 years its forage and cattle production on its large expanses of land on the fringes of the agriculturally settled areas. It is true that these lands, while marginal for cash crops, could produce excellent forage. But at what cost? And what kind of pasture could we grow on them?It is easy to speculate that our livestock geneticists can breed a ruminant-type animal that will feed on poplar saplings and poplar leaves, or develop a new breed of cattle with buffalo vigor that will thrive in the extreme north. But looking at the musk-ox experience in the Northwest Territories and the history of the Wood Buffalo National Park leaves little room for optimism.The present generation is not likely to see in its lifetime the cattle population go beyond the 20 million mark. We can look, however, with good assurance on the present cattle numbers remaining stable and can look forward to gradual increase brought about by normal improvement in both forage and cattle management.Hopefully, both the cattle producer and the veterinarian will be able to reap the benefits of this most important segment of Canada''s agricultural industry.     

Beef and pork packing industries.

A remarkable transformation of the meatpacking industry occurred in the last 25 years. That transformation consolidated the industry into one that could deliver large volumes of meat at low costs. Slaughter plants grew much larger and realized economies of scale from their size, and operations within plants were rationalized to emphasize the delivery of a small set of consistent major products (boxed beef, cut-up pork, and by-products) to retailers, wholesalers, and other processors. Similar developments occurred in livestock feeding whereby the industry realized significant cost reductions by consolidating production in very large cattle feedlots and hog farms. Gains from scale have largely been met (absent the development of new technologies that are not yet on the horizon); therefore, we are unlikely to see similar shifts in plant sizes in the next 25 years. The major forces affecting meatpacking and livestock feeding in the near future are more likely to revolve around tighter coordination among livestock production, meatpacking, wholesaling, and retailing. Although much of the recent response to food safety concerns took the form of investments in equipment, testing, and training within meatpacking plants, packers and retailers are likely to focus more on assurance of livestock production quality and methods in the future. Such assurance can be met through vertical integration or through a greater reliance on tightly drawn contracts; producers who attempt to provide the assurance while still selling through cash markets will need to develop paper trails of testing and quality assurance that will move through the marketing chain with livestock. Similarly, because of likely increased future demand for meats of assured consumer qualities, such as organically grown products or branded meat products with very specific traits, producers will likely need to provide similar indicators of assurance throughout the marketing chain. Finally, the funding offered through federal environmental assistance programs such as the USDA's Environmental Quality Incentives Program along with related regulations governing waste management will likely lead to greater control over livestock production practices by investors, financiers, integrators, and packers through contractual design. Shifts toward tighter vertical coordination will force continuing changes in traditional ways of doing business in livestock production and in meatpacking. In turn, public policy discussions and corporate strategies in meatpacking are likely to focus continuing attention on the particulars of contract design: how to meet consumers', retailers', and regulators' requirements for quality assurance while ensuring efficient low-cost production without retarding competition in the industry.     

Beef alliances: motivations, extent, and future prospects.

With their growth, it is important to consider how alliances will impact the beef industry in the future. Alliances have the potential to make sweeping changes to cattle production, live and feeder cattle marketing, food safety protocols, use of government grades and standards, ownership structure, supply chain management, wholesale and retail product marketing, risk management, and many other industry activities. In an effort to address these issues, this article addresses the following questions: What is an alliance? What has motivated their proliferation? What have we learned from alliances? What aspects of alliances affect their likelihood of success or failure? What is the future of alliances? Are they a fad or a long-term evolving industry structural change?     

Diagnosis and control of neonatal losses in sheep

Perinatal mortality is affected by a variety of management factors and disease processes that create significant losses for the sheep industry. Annual production losses prior to weaning include roughly 15% to 20% of the lamb crop. The majority of these perinatal losses occur during the prenatal, natal, and early postnatal periods, with the predominant wave of mortality occurring during the first several days following birth. Causes of perinatal mortality may vary between flocks and between geographic areas; however, four dominant categories of lamb loss consistently surface: (1) abortions; (2) hypothermia, starvation, and exposure; (3) pneumonia; and (4) stillbirth and dystocia. They account for roughly 50% to 75% of all documented perinatal losses. Veterinarians and producers need to work together to document the type of losses that occur in a given flock and then design economic prevention programs that address these problems. In most cases, traditional prevention programs will need to be replaced by a comprehensive management scheme addressing nutrition, genetics, housing, marketing, lambing husbandry, and labor.     

Demographics of the Canadian dairy industry from 1991 to 2011

A retrospective study of the demographics of the Canadian dairy industry was conducted using data derived from Statistics Canada’s Census of Agriculture from 1991 to 2011. This longitudinal study shows that Canada’s dairy industry has undergone considerable consolidation. From 1991 to 2011, the number of dairy producers and dairy farms decreased by 48.9% and 61.9%, respectively. Furthermore, this trend in consolidation is likely to continue; nearly half (45.8%) of all dairy producers in Canada were ≥ 50 y of age in 2011. Not only will most of these producers be retired by 2021, but younger producers will also exit the industry for other reasons. These findings mirror what is occurring in Canada’s cow-calf industry, underscoring that supply-managed sectors experience demographic consolidation similar to non-supply managed sectors. These substantial changes will have ramifications for the veterinary profession. There will be fewer but larger farms, and the services and knowledge demanded of veterinarians will change accordingly, which has implications for food animal veterinary education.     

Identification and Management of Critical Control Points in the Cow-Calf Enterprise for Achieving and Maintaining Consistency and Low Cost of Production: Summary of Feedlot and Carcass Performance and Overall Economic Results

Feedlot and carcass data were collected on an average of 20 steer offspring from 10 cooperating, southwestern Colorado cow-calf ranches that had previously been analyzed using the Integrated Resource Management-Standardized Performance Analysis (IRM-SPA) program. Averages and variation within and across ranches are presented. In general, variation observed was greater than desired by the beef cattle industry’s Long Range Plan carcass specification targets. Over all ranches, 59% of the cattle were outside of the desired specification ranges for one or more traits, although none of the ranches had insurmountable carcass challenges. The factors that affect low-cost production of a consistent beef product that meets the necessary standards for quality were also examined. Feed and labor costs were under control in most low-cost operations and managers had communicated goals to other people involved in the operation. There was no difference in feedlot performance between high- and low-cost cow-calf enterprises. High- and low-costs operators were equal in their ability to hit carcass targets.     

Do Young Calves Influence Movement Patterns of Nursing Raramuri Criollo Cows on Rangeland?

We compared movement patterns of nursing versus non-nursing cows and characterized cow-calf proximity patterns over 2 years in two herds of Raramuri Criollo (RC) cattle that grazed either desert rangeland of southern New Mexico, United States, or woodlands of west-central Chihuahua, Mexico. At each site, 9−14 randomly selected mature cows were fitted with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars configured to record animal position at 5-min intervals. Four to five GPS-collared nursing cows and their calves were also fitted with proximity loggers that recorded initiation time and duration of dam-calf contact events (< 1 m logger-to-logger distance). All calves were < 2 wk old at the onset of the study. Collared animals grazed with a herd of 30 and 35 cows at the NM site and with 68 and 87 cows at the Chihuahua site in 2015 and 2016, respectively. Non-nursing RC cows exhibited straighter travel paths and explored larger daily areas than their nursing counterparts. However, nursing and non-nursing RC cows in this study traveled similar distances each day, moved at comparable velocities, spent similar amounts of time close to drinkers, and did not differ in daily time spent grazing, resting, or traveling. A higher number of cow-calf contact events occurred during day versus nighttime hours, but total day versus night contact time was similar. As calves became older, the number of both day and nighttime contact events, as well as dam-offspring contact time, decreased significantly. Relative to their calves, dams explored larger areas of the pasture each day; however, cow-calf contact events occurred throughout the entire area grazed by the dams including areas surrounding the drinkers. Cow-calf interactions of RC cows resembled those of a strong follower regardless of the grazing environment and differed from previously reported mother-offspring relations in mainstream British beef cattle breeds.     

Preconditioning calves for the feedlot

Preconditioning is a theoretically sound concept; however, it has not gained wide acceptance by cow-calf producers or feeders owing to logistics and expense. Many of the claims of preconditioning are not substantiated by controlled research data. Many of the positive claims made for preconditioning may be a result of the calves moving more rapidly through the marketing channels. Although preconditioning is profitable to some producers, on the average, preconditioning is difficult to justify economically. Modifications of the preconditioning concept have the potential to make it more feasible to the majority of cow-calf producers. Any producer or feeder considering a preconditioning program or feeding preconditioned calves should first calculate an economic projection.     

Serum copper concentrations in beef cows and heifers

OBJECTIVE: To characterize serum copper status of cows and heifers in beef cow-calf herds throughout the United States and to evaluate use of copper supplements in those herds. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. ANIMALS: 2,007 cows and heifers from 256 herds in 18 states. PROCEDURES: Producers participating in a health and management survey conducted as part of the National Animal Health Monitoring System voluntarily allowed serum samples to be obtained from cows and heifers for determination of copper concentration. Results were categorized as deficient, marginally deficient, or adequate. The proportion of cattle and herds (on the basis of mean value of the tested cattle) in each category was determined. Copper concentrations were compared between herds that reportedly used copper supplements and those that did not. RESULTS: Overall, 34 of 2,007 (1.7%) cows and heifers were deficient in copper, and 781 (38.9%) were marginally deficient. In each region, at least a third of the cattle were deficient or marginally deficient. For herds, 92 of 256 (35.9%) were marginally deficient, and 22 (0.8%) were deficient. Approximately half of the producers reported use of copper supplements, but a sizeable proportion of those producers' cattle and herds were classified as marginally deficient or deficient. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Copper deficiency is not restricted to a single geographic region of the United States. Copper deficiency can persist despite reported use of supplements by producers. Veterinarians dealing with beef cow-calf herds that have problems consistent with copper deficiency should not rule out copper deficiency solely on the basis of geographic region or reported use of copper supplements for the herd.     

Multi-state Beef Reproduction Task Force provides science-based recommendations for the application of reproductive technologies

Since its formation, the Beef Reproduction Task Force (BRTF) has worked to enhance productivity and profitability of US beef herds by integrating research and extension efforts with the intent of more effectively transferring the use of reproductive technologies to the field. A key early step was to coordinate efforts in identifying effective breeding management protocols for beef cattle and to clarify their associated acronyms. A short list of recommended protocols and their acronyms for synchronization of estrus and ovulation in beef cattle was developed based on results from peer-reviewed, published research and a comprehensive review of data collected from the field. The list of recommended protocols was developed by the BRTF in cooperation with veterinarians and cattle AI industries. These protocols and their acronyms are presented uniformly in all of the major AI sire directories and are available online at http://www.beefrepro.info. Protocol updates are made annually to incorporate the most recent research findings related to estrous cycle control in beef cattle. The Estrus Synchronization Planner, a software program developed in cooperation with the Iowa Beef Center, now reflects these same recommendations. Beginning in 2002, the BRTF hosted and presented 11 educational workshops to more than 1,900 attendees in key cow-calf states. These Applied Reproductive Strategies in Beef Cattle workshops targeted beef producers, AI industry personnel, veterinarians, allied industry representatives, and academicians. A national media sponsor provided online coverage of the last 3 workshops at http://www.appliedreprostrategies.com. A postmeeting evaluation, developed to assess application of information from 2 recent workshops, was returned by 55% of those contacted (n = 150). Attendees averaged 16 (± 13.4 SD) yr of AI experience, and 80% of respondents represented more than 100 cows. Respondents were asked to estimate the value of AI-sired calves compared with natural-service-sired calves to their operation on a per-animal-marketed basis, and 17 and 31% responded $50 to $100 per animal and more than $100 per animal, respectively. As a result of what was learned at these conferences, 78% of respondents were better able to troubleshoot management-related issues, 60% made alterations to a protocol they had been using, and 35% of the respondents indicated they changed to a different estrus synchronization protocol.     

Use of stakeholder analysis to inform risk communication and extension strategies for improved biosecurity amongst small-scale pig producers

Extension and communication needs amongst small-scale pig producers, described as pig producers with less than 100 sows, have been previously identified. These producers, who are believed to pose a biosecurity risk to commercial livestock industries, are characterized by a lack of formal networks, mistrust of authorities, poor disease reporting behaviour and motivational diversity, and reliance on other producers, veterinarians and family for pig health and production advice. This paper applies stakeholder identification and analysis tools to determine stakeholders' influence and interest on pig producers' practices. Findings can inform a risk communication process and the development of an extension framework to increase producers' engagement with industry and their compliance with biosecurity standards and legislation in Australia. The process included identification of stakeholders, their issues of concerns regarding small-scale pig producers and biosecurity and their influence and interest in each of these issues. This exercise identified the capacity of different stakeholders to influence the outcomes for each issue and assessed their success or failure to do so. The disconnection identified between the level of interest and influence suggests that government and industry need to work with the small-scale pig producers and with those who have the capacity to influence them. Successful biosecurity risk management will depend on shared responsibility and building trust amongst stakeholders. Flow-on effects may include legitimating the importance of reporting and compliance systems and the co-management of risk. Compliance of small-scale pig producers with biosecurity industry standards and legislation will reduce the risks of entry and spread of exotic diseases in Australia.     

Results of a longitudinal study of the prevalence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on cow-calf farms

OBJECTIVE: To describe the frequency and distribution of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in the feces and environment of cow-calf herds housed on pasture. SAMPLE POPULATION: Fecal and water samples for 10 cow-calf farms in Kansas. PROCEDURE: Fecal and water samples were obtained monthly throughout a 1-year period (3,152 fecal samples from 2,058 cattle; 199 water samples). Escherichia coli O157:H7 in fecal and water samples was determined, using microbial culture. RESULTS: Escherichia coli O157:H7 was detected in 40 of 3,152 (1.3%) fecal samples, and 40 of 2,058 (1.9%) cattle had > or = 1 sample with E coli. Fecal shedding by specific cattle was transient; none of the cattle had E coli in more than 1 sample. Significant differences were not detected in overall prevalence among farms. However, significant differences were detected in prevalence among sample collection dates. Escherichia coli O157:H7 was detected in 3 of 199 (1.5%) water samples. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Implementing control strategies for E coli O157:H7 at all levels of the cattle industry will decrease the risk of this organism entering the human food chain. Devising effective on-farm strategies to control E coli O157:H7 in cow-calf herds will require an understanding of the epidemiologic characteristics of this pathogen.     

Benefits of obtaining test-negative Level 4 classification for beef producers in the Voluntary Bovine Johne's Disease Control Program

The US Voluntary Bovine Johne's Disease Control Program (VBJDCP) stipulates the national standards for Johne's disease (JD) control, and herds classified as test-negative at Level 4 of the VBJDCP have the greatest likelihood of being non-infected. A questionnaire survey of owners of VBJDCP test-negative Level 4 beef herds was conducted to describe perceived benefits of attaining Level 4 status. Thirty-nine of the 40 producers returned completed or partially completed surveys. Sixty-four percent (23/36) of herds contained 50 or less test eligible cattle. Twenty-seven percent (10/37) of producers reported increased marketing opportunities as a goal for enrollment in the VBJDCP. Classification at test-negative Level 4 status in the VBJDCP led to increased marketing opportunities for more than one-third (13/35) of the producers. Twenty-five percent (9/36) of the producers reported significant and 39% (14/36) marginal benefits (financial and non-financial) as a result of participation in the VBJDCP. The median (range) reported annual benefit was $0 ($0, $10,000), whilst the median (range) annual cost of implementing and sustaining the VBJDCP on ranches was $200 ($0, $5000). It is suggested that greater publicity about the VBJDCP in the beef cattle industry will increase its chances of success by increasing awareness amongst producers concerned about herd health/disease monitoring, and through improved marketing opportunities.     

Swine production.

The US swine industry is large and growing. The quantity of pork desired by consumers of US pork is growing at the rate of 1.5%/y. New production systems and new technology have enabled production per sow to grow at a rate of 4% annually in recent years. Consequently, the number of sows in the United States is declining. Because productivity growth is outpacing demand growth, the deflated price of hogs and pork is declining. Hog production and prices continue to exhibit strong seasonal and cyclic patterns. Pork production is usually lowest in the summer and highest in the fall. Production and prices tend to follow 4-year patterns. The US swine industry continues to evolve toward fewer and larger producers who rely on contracts for both hog production and marketing. In 2000, over half of the hogs marketed were from approximately 156 firms marketing more than 50,000 head annually. These producers finished 60% of their production in contract facilities. Over 90% of their marketings were under contract or were owned by a packer. These producers expressed a high level of satisfaction with hog production. Both they and their contract growers were satisfied with production contracts. These large producers were satisfied with their marketing contracts and planned to continue them in the future. The hog industry has changed a great deal in the last decade. There is little reason to believe this rapid rate of change will not continue. This swine industry is highly competitive and profit driven. Profit margins are too small to allow producers the luxury of ignoring new technology and innovative production systems. Consequently, hog production will continue its rapid evolution from traditional agriculture to typical industry.