A survey of feeding , management and faecal pH of Thoroughbred racehorses in the North Island of New Zealand

AIM: To identify feeding and management variables associated with variation in faecal pH within a population of intensively managed Thoroughbred racehorses in New Zealand. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted of 16 racehorse trainers in the North Island of New Zealand. Interviews were conducted at the trainers' stables to obtain information on feeding and management of horses, and faecal samples were collected and faecal pH measured. RESULTS: Ninety-seven percent of the horses surveyed were confined in an area or=12 h/day. Trainer's age, number of years they had trained horses, age and gender of horses, weeks in race training, racing class, frequency of feeding, bedding type, and exercise workload had no effect on mean faecal pH. Acidic faecal pH (pH 12 horses. Acidic faecal pH was associated with trainers who offered 4 kg of grain as the only form of concentrate fed, or offered 12 horses. Irrespective of management system, it appears important to provide at least 2.25 kg of hay/day ad libitum, to buffer hindgut acidosis associated with diets high in soluble carbohydrate.     

A survey of feeding,management and faecal pH of Thoroughbred racehorses in the North Island of New Zealand

AIM: To identify feeding and management variables associated with variation in faecal pH within a population of intensively managed Thoroughbred racehorses in New Zealand.

METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted of 16 racehorse trainers in the North Island of New Zealand. Interviews were conducted at the trainers' stables to obtain information on feeding and management of horses, and faecal samples were collected and faecal pH measured.

RESULTS: Ninety-seven percent of the horses surveyed were confined in an area ≤5 × 5 m for ≥12 h/day. Trainer's age, number of years they had trained horses, age and gender of horses, weeks in race training, racing class, frequency of feeding, bedding type, and exercise workload had no effect on mean faecal pH. Acidic faecal pH (pH ≤6.32) was associated with stables with ≤12 horses, and trainers at stables with ≤12 horses offered more concentrate feed than those at stables with >12 horses. Acidic faecal pH was associated with trainers who offered 4 kg of grain as the only form of concentrate fed, or offered ≤2.25 kg hay/day. Horses that displayed stable vices had less acidic faecal pH than horses that did not display stable vices, viz pH 6.70 (standard error of the mean (SEM) 0.135) vs 6.43 (SEM 0.029) (p=0.04).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Racehorse management in New Zealand is similar to that observed in other major racing countries. Trainers with ≤12 horses fed more concentrates and their horses had lower faecal pH than those of trainers with >12 horses. Irrespective of management system, it appears important to provide at least 2.25 kg of hay/day ad libitum, to buffer hindgut acidosis associated with diets high in soluble carbohydrate.     

Length of winter coat in horses depending on husbandry conditions

This paper analyzes changes in the length of coat on selected body areas in horses and ponies kept under different husbandry (stable) conditions during the winter‐spring period. The study included 12 Ma?polski geldings and 12 geldings of Felin ponies aged 10–15 years. Horses were kept in two stables (six horses and six ponies in each stable). The type of performance, husbandry conditions and feeding of the studied animals were comparable. As of December 1, samples of hair coat from the scapula, sternum, back and abdomen areas of both body sides were collected seven times. The lengths of 20 randomly selected hair fibers were measured. Daily measurements of air temperature in the stables were also taken. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using the following factors: the body part from where the coat was sampled, the subsequent examination and the stable as well as the interaction between these factors. The significance of differences between means was determined with a t‐Tukey test. The relations between air temperature in the stable and hair length were calculated using Pearson's correlation. It was found that air temperature in the stable impacts the length of winter coat in horses and ponies. The effect of this factor is more pronounced in ponies; as in the stables with lower temperatures it produces a longer hair coat which is more evenly distributed over the body in comparison with horses. Keeping horses and ponies in stables with a low air temperature accelerates coat shedding by approximately 25 days. Coat shedding begins from the scapula area.     

Particle mapping in stables at an American Thoroughbred racetrack

Reasons for performing study: Airway inflammation and mucus in the trachea are common in racehorses. Fine airborne particles can initiate and coarse particles can worsen airway inflammation in man and in animal models of airway disease. The regional and seasonal distribution of particles of different sizes has never been investigated in American racing stables. Objectives: To determine the regional and seasonal concentration and number of airborne particles of different sizes in racing stables. Methods: Direct reading instruments were used to determine the mass concentration and numbers of particles 3 times daily (early morning, midday and late afternoon) in July, September and November, in 3 different racing stables. Results: Average particle concentrations were lowest in July and highest in September and November. Early morning concentrations were significantly higher than those measured throughout the rest of the day. The completely enclosed stable with little natural ventilation, had significantly higher particulate concentrations than the open‐sided stable. With regard to numbers of particles, those 2–5 µm were greatest in July and least in November; those 0.5–1.0 µm were greatest in September and least in November. Location of stall within stable also affected concentrations and numbers. Conclusions: The concentration and number of particles in sizes known to reach the lower airways varies with stable design/management, time of day, season of year and location of the stall within the stable. Potential relevance: Particle mapping is a useful tool in the identification of stables, season, and location of stalls within stables where horses may be at greater risk of exposure to offending particulates.     

Computer simulation of the stable climate on the PC in veterinary practice

The wide distribution of personal computers allows the application of programs which enable veterinary surgeons to assist in the management of live stock. A simulation model is made for the field of indoor climates of stables which makes a full-year calculation of temperature and humidity of the indoor climate and the quality of the air in stables. The calculation is based on a steady-state balance model of energy (heat and humidity) and matter. Using the example of a pig fattening sty, all the necessary system parameters are stated that are needed to totally present the model. The results of the simulation are then interpreted. Furthermore the assertions and conclusions will be shown which result thereby.     

Responses of horses offered a choice between stables containing single or multiple forages

To investigate the choices of foraging location of horses, 10 to 12 horses were introduced for five minutes into each of two similar stables containing a single forage or six forages, in four replicated trials. The horses were then removed and released into the gangway between the stables, and allowed five minutes to choose between the stables. Their initial and final choices, mean duration in each stable and proportional frequency of change of location were compared. Most of the horses initially entered the closest stable on release (P<0.05); if the closest stable contained a single hay, most horses transferred to the stable containing multiple forages (P<0.001). The length of time spent by the horses in the two stables suggested that they preferred multiple forages in multiple locations (P<0.001). Eleven horses moved from one stable to the other on one or more occasions during trials when hay or a preferred forage was available in both stables, possibly indicating a motivation to move between foraging locations regardless of the palatability of the forages offered or the horses' preference for a forage.     

Comparison of concentrations of Rhodococcus equi and virulent R. equi in air of stables and paddocks on horse breeding farms in a temperate climate

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Rhodococcoccus equi is a significant cause of bronchopneumonia in foals worldwide. Infection of the lungs is believed to result from inhalation of virulent R. equi in dust from contaminated environments. A measure of infectious risk in an environment is the level of airborne contamination. OBJECTIVES: To assess and compare the level of airborne virulent R. equi in paddocks and stables. METHODS: Air samples were collected sequentially over the 2003 foaling season from the paddocks and stables on 3 Irish horse breeding farms affected by R. equi pneumonia. Colony blotting and DNA hybridisation techniques allowed quantitation of virulent R. equi. RESULTS: The odds of detecting airborne virulent R. equi in stables were 173 times greater than in paddocks. The median airborne concentration of virulent R. equi was significantly higher (P < 0.001) in stables than in paddocks on all farms. These observations suggested that stables were high-risk areas for infection. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Our results indicate that contaminated stables are a significant risk factor in the epidemiology of R. equi pneumonia on horse-breeding farms in a temperate climate, such as in Ireland. Management strategies that improve the air hygiene of stables, through better ventilation, use of less fragile bedding material and the use of fogging agents to reduce the airborne concentration of virulent R. equi, may reduce the incidence and severity of R. equi pneumonia on farms.     

Air hygiene in stables. 1: Effects of stable design, ventilation and management on the concentration of respirable dust

The concentration of fungal spores, the main constituents of respirable dust in stables, is determined by rates of release from fodder and bedding and rate of clearance, principally by ventilation. This paper outlines the principles that govern the application of natural ventilation to the control of air hygiene in barns and individual boxes for horses. When release rates are low, ventilation rates over four air changes per hour are satisfactory. Ventilation was satisfactory in individual boxes but usually unsatisfactory in barns and specific recommendations are made for improvement. Preliminary observations in stables with clean, well-managed bedding revealed only small differences between straw, wood shavings and paper. In these circumstances hay tended to be the major source of respirable spores.     

Local airborne particulate concentration is associated with visible tracheal mucus in Thoroughbred racehorses

Reason for performing study: Accumulations of tracheal mucus assessed by endoscopic examination are associated with poor performance in racehorses. The air quality in horses' stalls may contribute to this visible tracheal mucus. Objectives: To determine whether the concentration and number of airborne particulates in stalls are associated with visible accumulations of tracheal mucus and with the number of inflammatory cells in tracheal aspirates. Methods: We studied 107 racehorses from 3 stables, in 3 different months, and measured airborne particulate matter 3 times daily in each of the stalls. On each monthly visit, horse airways were examined endoscopically and assigned a mucus score, and tracheal lavage was performed. Bivariate procedures, general estimating equations and linear mixed models were applied to estimate the association between PM and the presence of accumulations of mucus and number of inflammatory cells. Results: Stable, stall, month and PM were all significantly associated with the presence of accumulations of tracheal mucus, which had an overall prevalence of 67%. The odds of horses having visible accumulation of mucus were increased when horses occupied enclosed stables or stalls with higher particulate concentrations, and when concentrations of larger particles (≤10 µm in diameter) were elevated. Sixty‐eight percent of tracheal wash samples contained more than 20% neutrophils. Increased numbers of neutrophils were associated with the concentration of smaller particles (≤2.5 µm in diameter). Potential relevance: Careful consideration of stable construction and management practices focused on maintaining the lowest possible dust concentrations throughout the day should reduce the prevalence of visible accumulations of tracheal mucus, potentially improving racing performance.     

Activity Behavior of Horses Housed in Different Open Barn Systems

Housing conditions do not frequently meet the natural needs of horses. German and Swiss studies have shown that merely 16% of horses are kept in group housing systems, but even these vary greatly with different effects on horses’ behavior. The objective of the survey was to determine whether horses show increased activity in barns with various options for movements and functional elements. Free movement stables allow horses to live within a herd, to decide whether to be outside or inside the herd, and to enable them fresh air supply. Data from 25 horses kept in three different open barns (O1–O3) were compared with that from two active barns with functional elements (active barn 1 and active barn 2), for example, automatic feeder, with five horses each. Activity-Lying-Temperature-pedometers fastened to a rear leg of each horse were used to measure activity. Animal data were recorded throughout a test period of 10 days per barn. The results showed a median of 46 to 68 mean daily activity impulses per 10 minutes for horses in stables O1 to O3. In stables active barn 1 to active barn 2, this measure was exceeded considerably with medians of 77 and 151. The activity impulses in the stable systems were significantly different at an error level of α = 0.05. These results support previous studies and show that activity of horses depends on their opportunities for moving. The sectioning of a stable, placement of functional elements, and feeding frequency have considerable effects on the activity level of the horse. It is useful to integrate different functional areas in a group housing system.     

Evaluation of Factors Influencing the Generation of Ammonia in Different Bedding Materials Used for Horse Keeping

Bedding material is an important factor in determining stable air quality in terms of ammonia formation. The objective of this study was to analyze different bedding materials used for horse stables under standardized conditions, to determine which material is best suited for improving the climate of a stable. The particular concern was a reduction in gaseous ammonia concentrations. Therefore, the following materials were examined: wheat straw, wood shavings, hemp shives, linen shives, wheat straw pellets, and paper cuttings. Twelve containers were constructed in an environmentally controlled room, and the same material was placed into two containers, with the amount of material used being determined by its carbon content. A defined ratio of horse manure/urine mixture was added daily to each container over a period of 14 days. The concentrations of gaseous ammonia, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and water vapor were measured continuously above the bedding within the containers. Means of gaseous ammonia were found to be 178.0 mg/m³ for wheat straw, 155.2 mg/m³ for wood shavings, 144.6 mg/m³ for hemp, 133.7 mg/m³ for linen, 60.3 mg/m³ for straw pellets, and 162.6 mg/m³ for paper cuttings. In conclusion, the results of this study have shown that straw pellets are suitable for horse stables, not only to improve air quality but also, first and foremost, in relation to ammonia binding and ammonia transformation within the bedding material, respectively. However, straw pellets may also have disadvantages. The high substrate temperatures that were measured in straw pellets could favor the growth of pathologic germs that can adversely affect animals' health.     

畜禽舍微生物气溶胶向环境扩散的研究

应用一个扩散模式估算来自畜禽舍的微生物气溶胶向环境的扩散。在此考虑到了较大悬载尘埃颗粒的沉落和气悬状态下细菌生物学活性对空气微生物传播的影响。菌源高度 (栏舍废气排放孔 )认作 3m和 1 0m。当扩散级为IV和菌源强度为 1 0 6CFU/s时 ,在距离畜禽舍 1 0 0 ,2 0 0 ,30 0 ,40 0 ,5 0 0m处细菌含量分别为 5 0 ,1 0 0 ,2 0 0 ,5 0 0和 1 0 0 0CFU/m3。研究证明 ,畜禽舍之间保持一定距离将很大程度地减少气源性感染的威胁 ;畜牧场应建设在距居民区最少 5 0 0m的地方。     

Livestock manure as a vector for parasites--a report of experiences

Analysing the results of own investigations and informations in literature a review is given about the role of manure specially in stables of high-intensity cattle and pig production as a vector for exogenic parasite stages. In the course of investigations--in most cases simulating practice conditions--so-called indicator germs were used as test material. In cattle stables manure is significant as a vector for Eimeria species, Cryptosporidium parvum, Sarcocystis species, Taenia saginata and Fasciola hepatica. In pig stables manure must be classified as a reservoir of infections with Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis species and Ascaris suum; moreover it represents a favourable culturing medium for stable flies. Possibilities to overcome the problems are discussed under parasitological field of view.     

Effectiveness of environmental disinfection with formalin aerosol]

The effectiveness was tested of preventive disinfection of pig-fattening houses with formalin, applied as aerosol with the Swingfog SN 100 apparatus. The effectiveness of this treatment was evaluated according to the proportion of smears containing lactoso-positive micro-organisms, expressed as a percentage of the total number of smears, and according to the reduction of contamination with E. coli and St. aureus on wooden or aluminium carriers. The effectiveness was found to be good and the treatment is recommended as suitable for the preventive disinfection of stables. However, the following procedure should be strictly observed: Before disinfection the stables must be thoroughly mechanically cleansed, dried, and well closed to be air-tight. The air temperature in these premises should not be lower than 12 degrees C. Formalin (with a minimum content of 40% of formaldehyde) should be applied at a rate of at least 10 ml per 1 m3 of space and the agent should be diluted with water at 1 : 1 ratio prior to use. The aerosol should be produced by the Swingfog SN 100 generator, adjusted to apply about 40 1 of the solution per hour. The maximum space treated from one place should be limited to 500 m3. The exposure time should be at least 16 hours.     

Influence of a turkey stable with a veranda on performance, behaviour and health of male turkeys

Throughout 4 fattening periods (summer and winter) the influence of a veranda (roofed outside run) on the performance, behaviour and health of tom turkeys was investigated in a pilot study. A second conventional naturally ventilated stable without a veranda was also included in the investigations for special aspects. The aim of this study was to investigate this first turkey stable with a veranda and to give first recommendation for the practical use. The use of the veranda and the differences in behaviour between inside the stable with a veranda and inside the veranda as well as inside both stables were analysed. From 100 turkeys in each period we examined feather condition, walking ability and leg posture in the 9th, 13th and 17th week of age in both stables. In addition, body weight, food consumption and mortality were recorded. The results of this pilot study indicate that the tom turkeys of the line BUT Big 6 used the veranda without negative effects on health and performance parameters. There was some indication for an improved health of animals or a reduced mortality in the stable with veranda. The decrease of walking ability and normal leg posture with increasing age and body weight in both stables suggests that the genetic influence seems to have a higher influence than the enrichment of environment in this study using the fast growing line BUT Big 6. On the other hand, in this pilot study only one stable with a veranda and another commercial stable without a veranda at a different location were included. For this reason the results should be interpreted carefully with respect to possible effects in the management between the two farms.     

Airborne transmission of BHV1, BRSV, and BVDV among cattle is possible under experimental conditions

To control the diseases caused by bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV1), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), and bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV), it is crucial to know their modes of transmission. The purpose of this study was to determine whether these viruses can be transmitted by air to a substantial extent. Calves were housed in two separate isolation stables in which a unidirectional airflow was maintained through a tube in the wall. In one stable, three of the five calves were experimentally infected with BHV1 and later with BRSV. In the BVDV experiment, two calves persistently infected with BVDV (PI-calves) instead of experimentally infected calves, were used as the source of the virus. In all the calves infections were monitored using virus and antibody detection. Results showed that all the three viruses were transmitted by air. BHV1 spread to sentinel calves in the adjacent stable within three days, and BRSV within nine days, and BVDV spread to sentinel calves probably within one week. Although airborne transmission is possibly not the main route of transmission, these findings will have consequences for disease prevention and regulations in control programmes.     

Suitability of biocompost as a bedding material for stabled horses: respiratory hygiene and management practicalities

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Bedding material in stables has an important influence on air hygiene and information on the suitability of biocompost and wood shavings is incomplete. OBJECTIVES: To compare the suitability and benefit of biocompost and wood shavings as bedding in horse stables and to determine key air factors for the evaluation of the potential impact of these materials on respiratory health. METHODS: The study was conducted in a naturally ventilated stable with 4 horses. Air hygiene parameters were measured 24 h/day for 7 days with each bedding type: ammonia (NH3), inhalable and respirable dust, endotoxins, colony forming units (CFU) of total mesophilic bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and thermophilic actinomycetes. Both bedding materials were analysed for general chemical composition, particle size distribution and natural microbial content. The animals' behaviour was monitored by video cameras, and their health and cleanliness status determined by clinical and visual examination. RESULTS: Concentrations of NH3, dust, endoxins and fungi were significantly higher during the monitoring period with wood shavings than with biocompost. In contrast concentrations of mesophilic bacteria, mesophilic actinomycetes and thermophilic actinomycetes microbial pollutants were highest with biocompost. The water content of bulk biocompost was considerably higher than that of wood shavings. Particles < or = 0.4 mm were not detectable in bulk wood shavings. The concentration of thermophilic actinomycetes by weight in raw biocompost was 639 times higher than in raw wood shavings. No significant differences were observed in the time spent by the horses lying down. The biocompost material tended to adhere more intensively to the animals' hair coat. Horses showed no clinical signs indicating any adverse effects of the biocompost material during the trials. CONCLUSIONS: Biocompost cannot be recommended as bedding material for horses in stables, because the concentration of thermophilic actinomycetes and other agents that elicit and maintain recurrent airway obstructions was significantly higher with biocompost than with wood shavings. To ensure the well-being of horses, any new bedding material must be tested very carefully before it is introduced to the market.     

Isolation of Streptococcus pneumoniae from the respiratory tract of horses

Streptococcus pneumoniae was isolated from nasopharyngeal swabs and tracheal washings taken from Thoroughbred horses in training at three of four separate stables that were sampled during investigations into respiratory disease. The growth of Strep pneumoniae in culture was enhanced by an environment enriched with carbon dioxide. In one stable, five of 15 horses that were sampled repeatedly were found to carry the organism for at least four months. There was an apparent association between lower respiratory tract inflammatory disease and heavy growths (10(6) to 10(8) colony forming units/ml) predominantly of Strep pneumoniae or of that organism together with large numbers of Strep zooepidemicus obtained from tracheal washings. Twelve strains of Strep pneumoniae isolated from three stables were all of capsule Type 3. Only one strain, which was of capsule Type 9, was isolated from nose and throat swabs taken from 32 staff working in one of the stables and suggested an absence of cross infection between horses and their handlers in this instance.     

Protein, energy and dry matter consumption by racing thoroughbreds: A field survey

A field survey involving 109 horses in 9 stables at a Detroit racetrack was conducted to determine feeding practices and to estimate crude protein (CP), digestible energy (DE), and dry matter (DM) consumption by racing Thoroughbreds, and to compare those intakes with 1989 recommendations of the National Research Council (NRC), "Nutrient Requirements of Horses." Trainers were interviewed regarding: 1) the age and sex of the homes; 2) their feeding practices; and 3) the horse's training and racing schedule. Only adult homes who were actively racing and continuously stabled at the track were included. Body weights (BW) were estimated using a chest girth measurement. The horses had an overall mean body condition score of 5 which indicated average body condition for a racing. Thoroughbred at this track. Feed samples of hay and concentrate from each stable were weighed and analyzed at a commercial laboratory to determine CP, DM, acid detergent fiber (ADF), and estimated energy density. A computer program calculated CP, DE, and DM values for each horse's ration based onamounts fed. The software program included with the 1989 NRC publication was used to compare estimated nutrient intakes with current NRC recommendations for a horse of a given BW. Trainers fed a variety of hays. Eight trainers fed oats and only one fed corn. All trainers fed commercial sweet feeds. The mean total amount of feed for all homes on an "as fed" basis was 13.7 kg. The mean estimated DM intake for all horses was 12.3 kg vs. NRC recommended 11.6 kg. The mean for percentage of roughage in the ration for all stables was 53% vs. a NRC recommendation of 35%. The mean CP% ona DM basis for all stables' rations was 13.8% vs. a NRC recommendation of 11.4%. The means for actual CP and DE intakes for all horses were 1678 g and 33.3 Meal compared with current NRC recommendations of 1324 g CP and 33.1 Meal DE. Protein amounts were above those recommended due to the common practice of feeding relatively higher CP% in the rations than necessary for racehorse performance. These data appear to be more consistent with the recommendations of NRC in 1989 than previous recommendations in 1978.     

Air movements and animal performance in temperatures above the optimum

High indoor temperatures in modern stables of livestock farming units have to be offset to avoid loss in animal performance, and this is possible only through improved heat emission of the organism. Increase in air movement, for the time being, is the most effective method. A theoretical account is given of the amount of air movement required in temperatures above optimum and compared with literature data.