Blowing in the wind? Nutrient enrichment of remnant woodlands in an agricultural landscape

Increasing fertiliser use in agricultural landscapes is likely to threaten the viability of remnant native vegetation in many parts of the world. Australia’s prime grain production landscapes have nutrient poor soils, which formerly supported semi-arid woodland. The ecological function and capacity for regeneration of these remnants may be particularly susceptible to nutrient enrichment. The key sources of nutrients are wind and water deposition from crop fertilisation, and manure and feed from sheep. We hypothesised that these sources would result in unequal deposition of nutrients within and among remnant vegetation patches. We surveyed soil nutrients (Total N, Available P and K, C:N ratio, and soil pH) in the edges and interiors of 60 remnant woodland patches of various sizes, and in adjacent cultivated paddocks. Nutrient load was negatively correlated with remnant size and patterns were particularly strong for available P. Small remnant patches (<3 ha) were accumulation zones for nutrients, with levels comparable or higher than within crop lands. The patterns are consistent with the hypothesis that small remnants are strongly enriched as a result of being used for livestock shelter. In larger remnants, the primary cause of enrichment is consistent with edge accumulation of nutrients due to wind and water movement. In large patches, remnant edges, particularly the windward edge, were elevated compared to interiors of large patches. In these semi-arid crop lands, current trends in intensification of cropping and a shift away from livestock may reduce the input of nutrients to small patches but increase the nutrient threat to larger remnants.     

Nutrient Value of Protein from Spores of Agaricus blazei Mutant Strain J_3

2Results and Analysis2.1Essential amino acid composition of proteinfromspores ofA.blazeiJ1and J3Essential amino acid compositions ofprotein fromspores ofA.blazei,strains J1andJ3,are shown in Table1(see the Chineseversion).Ile,Leu and Phe+Tyr levels inprotein from J3spores were113.6%,16.7%and5.0%higher,respectively compared withthe corresponding protein fromJ1(P<0.05),whereas the content of other amino acids were6%-35%higher in protein fromJ1.The totalessential amino acid content of prot…     

Is it sufficient? Assessment of two sampling methods for urban plant species richness investigations

Determining adequate sample size (ASS) and minimum plot size (MPS) are two fundamental issues in urban vegetation investigations. To estimate the ASS and MPS of urban plants, we introduced sampling completeness to the MPS calculation based on 54 samples in the urban area of Chongqing, China. Then, we examined the performance of the species-area curve method and CV_Jack1 (coefficient of variation (CV) for the first-order jackknife estimator (Jack1)) curve extrapolation method. We also tested the effectiveness and error distribution of extrapolating the ASS from CV_Jack1 curves using 180 samples from the urban area of Chongqing, China, and 222 samples from the urban area of Xiamen, China. The results of the urban plant analyses showed that (1) the constructed species-area accumulation curves fit a logistic function (R² > 0.990); (2) the MPS increased with sampling completeness, whereas unrecorded species exhibited the opposite trend; (3) the CV_Jack1 curves fit the allometric1 function (R² > 0.960) but might fail to reach a CV value of 0.05 for the calculation of ASS if the sample size was too small; and (4) the relative error values were below 5% when the error curves of extrapolation (by CV_Jack1 curve) approached a horizontal asymptote. The species-area accumulation curve with sampling completeness and the CV_Jack1 curve extrapolation method were promising approaches for determining the MPS and ASS of urban plants. The results and methods in this study provide a reference for determining the appropriate plot size and sample size for urban plant species richness investigations.     

Is colourful self-sustaining forb vegetation mere fantasy?

Biodiversity in urban and suburban environments can be supported through establishment of low maintenance-requiring herbaceous vegetation types. Here, we attempt to provide a perspective on the possibilities and limitations of establishing forb-dominated vegetation to support local biodiversity and contribute to changing public aesthetics concerning green spaces. Plant ecological theories, methods and experiences are the foundation for the design and establishment of such vegetation types. We emphasise the importance of high plant density and recurrent disturbance for the maintenance of forb communities. Well-established ecological theory tells us that totally self-sustaining herbaceous vegetation is not a realistic possibility. Without intervention, herbaceous vegetation will change over time and eventually be colonized by woody species through the process of succession. However, by applying a creative and strategic approach to establishment and subsequent management involving small scale disturbances, rather than solely a uniform maintenance regime, it may be possible to maintain a colourful, aesthetically appealing and species-rich forb dominated community that will support biodiversity and increase public acceptance of alternatives to conventional lawns in urban and suburban environments.     

Is the Organic System Economically Viable? The Case of Pineapple in India’s Northeast

This study intends to fill the gaps in the organic agriculture literature emerging from infrequent use of farm budget-related data, overlooking the imputed costs and non-existence of long-run return and profitability estimates. The results suggest that the organic system is economically unviable as the growers fail to recover their total production cost. However, growers’ returns exceed their ‘perceived’ production cost, which excludes their imputed expenses. Temporal, spatial, and size-based analysis also attests to this. On the contrary, cultivation in two sample villages where the household’s size, its head’s age, percentage of land, and yield are significantly higher, remain economically viable.     

Is ecosystem service research used by decision-makers? A case study of the Murray-Darling Basin,Australia

This paper investigates the accessibility and usefulness of the Ecosystem Services (ES) framework to policy analysts. Using a mixed methods approach of document analysis and semi-structured interviews we examine how an ES assessment of the benefits of restoring water to the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) in Australia has been used by government agencies in policy and planning. The ES assessment links changes in water management under the Basin Plan with modelled changes in water quality, river flows and inundation patterns and in turn to modelled freshwater and estuarine ecosystem response. These ecological responses were expressed in terms of incremental ES benefits which were valued monetarily using a variety of valuation techniques. To investigate how these pieces of information were used in the policy debate around the re-allocation of water in the MDB, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 Australian, State, and local government officials as well as academics and consultants. The interviews were designed to uncover the complex information dissemination process through networks within and among agencies. The results are mixed as to whether the assessment served to influence public policy. The report has been utilized and cited by Australian federal agencies, the downstream State of South Australia and conservation-based NGOs in their position statements and as such has been used as evidence in support of re-allocation of water in the MDB. A number of interview participants commented that the ES assessment raised awareness and this may lead to broader usage of the information and framework in the implementation phase of MDB water reform.     

Is greening the building envelope economically sustainable? An analysis to evaluate the advantages of economy of scope of vertical greening systems and green roofs

A wide replication of green envelopes can be a good opportunity to improve urban environment conditions, as demonstrated by several studies. Greening systems increase also building envelope performances; however their economic sustainability has not been fully investigated. This study evaluates the economic sustainability of two combined greening systems installed on an office building: a vertical greening system and a green roof, and it evaluates the advantages of economy of scope. The Cost-Benefit Analysis on two different combinations of vertical greening and green roofs considers personal benefits and costs over their life cycle. The results demonstrate the advantages of economy of scope, due to the additional benefits coming from the combination of two different systems. The results show that the tax incentives and the combination of green systems can make the installation and the maintenance costs economically sustainable during the life span of a greening system; this could lead to a wider diffusion of greening systems with higher environmental and aesthetic performances.     

Is love for green in our genes? A critical analysis of evolutionary assumptions in restorative environments research

Within the field of restorative environments research, it is commonly assumed that restorative responses, triggered by exposure to natural elements and settings, are ultimately adaptive traits originating from our species’ long evolutionary history in natural environments. The aim of this article is to critically investigate the viability of this evolutionary view on restoration. In doing so, we specifically focus on Stress Recovery Theory (SRT), as this theoretical framework has most extensively elaborated on the supposed evolutionary origins of restoration. A detailed analysis of SRT's psycho-evolutionary framework shows that neither current empirical evidence nor conceptual arguments provide any strong support for the hypothesis of restorative responses to nature as an ancient evolved adaptive trait. Based on this conclusion we put forward an alternative model for restorative responses to nature based on processing fluency, which prima facie circumvents some of the pitfalls associated with evolutionary accounts for restoration. The Discussion section reflects on the implications of our critical discussion for the theory and practice of urban forestry and urban greening.     

Is virtual reality a valid tool for restorative environments research?

This study examines the validity of virtual reality for assessing the restorative quality of environments. In Study 1, participants (N = 23) visited a real natural and a real urban environment, after completing a task to induce mental fatigue (i.e., a Sudoku task). We found that perceived restorative characteristics, preference ratings, experienced pleasure and self-reported restoration were higher in a real natural environment compared to a real urban environment. Perceived restorative characteristics could predict pleasure and restoration for both the real natural and urban environments, as well as preference for the real natural environment. In Study 2, participants (N = 26) visited a virtual natural and a virtual urban environment, again following a mental fatigue induction. Findings showed that virtual simulations of a natural and urban environment elicit similar effects as real counterparts of these environments. Perceived restorative characteristics, preference, pleasure and restoration were higher in a virtual natural environment compared to a virtual urban environment. Additionally, perceived restorative characteristics could predict pleasure and restoration for both the virtual natural and urban environments, and preference for the virtual natural environment. We did not find significant differences in perceived restorative characteristics between the real and virtual butterfly garden. Moreover, similar restorative characteristics predicted preference, pleasure and restoration in the real butterfly garden and the virtual butterfly garden. These findings indicate that virtual reality can be a valid tool for restorative environments research.     

Is landscape sustainability a useful concept in a changing world?

The world is changing rapidly, challenging the sustainability of landscapes and the resources and ecosystem services they provide to people and to plants and animals. Changes in land use and climate will alter the structure and composition of landscapes, and landscape functions may also be disrupted if the changes drive systems past thresholds into novel, no-analog configurations. Although landscapes will persist in some form, it is unlikely that they will provide the same values to people or habitat for wildlife that are the focus of current sustainability efforts. Tradeoffs among services to people or resources for wildlife will be inevitable. For the concept of sustainability to be relevant under these conditions, we must ask, “Sustainability of what, for whom?” Landscapes cannot be all things to all people (or organisms). Decisions about how to balance competing needs and goals and set priorities requires an understanding of landscape structure, function, and change—the foundation elements of landscape ecology.     

Is coppice a potential for urban forestry? The social perspective

After years of decline and neglect, low woodland types based on coppice management experience renewed interest. Substantial research has demonstrated the potentials of coppice for biomass production and for nature conservation, and coppices are increasingly being suggested for urban situations. Yet, our understanding of the more social aspects of coppice woodlands in modern urban situations is limited. Against this background, this contribution classifies coppice management systems as a basis for identification of social aspects of coppices and their potential use in contemporary urban forestry. Based on this classification, the social perspectives and potential niches for urban coppices are discussed, while lines of research are suggested which will support the development of a thorough and up-to-date knowledge base, against which the social merits of urban coppice woodlands can be critically evaluated.     

Global patterns of diversity in the urban forest: Is there evidence to support the 10/20/30 rule?

Diversity in the urban forest is important as it reduces risks from pests and diseases and from climate change and improves resilience in the supply of ecosystem services. To manage and improve diversity, there has been wide-spread acceptance of the 10/20/30 ‘rule of thumb’ proposed by Santamour, which states that municipal forests should comprise no more than 10% of any particular species, 20% of any one genus or 30% of any single family. While the implementation of targets based on Santamour's rule has contributed to a more diverse and resilient urban forest in many cities, there has been little empirical investigation of actual patterns of diversity occurring globally in different climates and land uses. In this study, we explored diversity and the relative abundance of the most common species, genus and family in 151 urban forest inventories from 108 different cities around the world. Observed patterns showed that relative abundance of the most common taxon was a good predictor of diversity and could be a useful measure of diversity for urban forest managers. Relative abundance of the most common taxon was much higher than the proposed benchmark at the species level, but comparable with proposed benchmarks at the genus and family level. Patterns varied by both climate and land use. Diversity was consistently lower in Continental climates and in streetscapes, and higher in Temperate climates and in urban forests that spanned multiple land uses. Further considerations in setting diversity benchmarks are discussed.     

Calcium and Potassium Foliar Sprays Affect Fruit Skin Color,Quality Attributes,and Mineral Nutrient Concentrations of ‘Red Delicious’ Apples

This study was conducted to evaluate the influences of foliar spray of potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and their combination on the fruit red skin color and quality attributes of ‘Red Delicious’ apple under conditions of south central Iran with warm and dry summer, where low and high temperature differences are low. The trees were sprayed five times using 5 g L^–1 calcium chloride (CaCl₂) at 3-week intervals starting from 3 weeks after full bloom and three times (at 9, 12, and 15 weeks after full bloom) using 2.5 g L^–1 K sources [potassium chloride (KCl), potassium sulfate (K₂SO₄), and potassium nitrate (KNO₃)] during two growing seasons in 2013 and 2014. Anthocyanin, some physicochemical attributes, and fruit mineral concentrations were measured at harvest. Results showed that spraying with K, CaCl₂, and their combinations significantly increased fruit weight, sugar and anthocyanin concentrations, firmness, and K uptake. A combined foliar application of CaCl₂ and each of the K sources was more effective on the improvement of fruit color, firmness, fruit K and Ca uptake, and K/Ca ratio as compared to the case when either K or Ca was applied alone.     

Is Chilling a Prerequisite for Flowering and Fruiting in ‘Arbequina’ Olives?

Abstract

It is generally thought that olives (Olea europaea) require several days (over 80 days) of chilling temperatures (7.2°C) for flower induction; minimum nighttime temperatures of 2-4°C and maximum daytime temperature of 15.5-19°C are considered optimum for flower and fruit production. Environmental chamber studies were conducted on potted olive trees for the purpose of defining flowering conditions for ‘Arbequina’. We repeatedly observed that good flower and fruit production in ‘Arbequina’ can be achieved even when the plants are not subjected to “chilling” temperatures or any chilling criteria that had previously been described necessary for flower and fruit production in olives. This phenomenon could be of great practical value because the results obtained can be exploited to cultivate olives in subtropical climates (e.g., southern and coastal Texas) where typical “chilling” temperatures are not commonly observed for prolonged periods of time.     

Breeding Strawberry for Higher Phytochemicals Content and Claim It: Is It Possible?

ABSTRACT

Commercial strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa) are one of the most investigated berries for nutritional and nutraceutical properties. A strawberry breeding program, including inter-specific back-crosses, is now producing new genotypes with increased vitamin C, folates, and phenols combined with important commercial traits. The release of new cultivars with a high content of bioactive compounds, which may contribute to health, wellness, and reduced disease risk, is expected from this program. The ultimate goal is to properly obtain and integrate new scientific knowledge from genetic, agronomic, and biomedical studies that may bring acceptance from food agencies for specific health claims on new strawberry cultivars.     

Is urban greening for everyone? Social inclusion and exclusion along the Gowanus Canal

Focusing on the subthemes of how governance happens and processes of marginalization, this paper examines a case study in Gowanus, Brooklyn to explore inclusion and exclusion in urban environmental decision-making processes. This work gains support from theoretical considerations in urban political ecology and interdisciplinary research on green gentrification and how power differences and inequity impact civic involvement. The Gowanus Canal in Brooklyn, New York became a Superfund site in 2010, after much debate between local, state, and federal government offices over how to pursue clean up. Private development, local and state initiatives are addressing the sewage and other contamination along the banks of the canal while the Superfund clean up in the waterway takes place. The area has become a site for enacting waterfront planning and economic development, green infrastructure creation, brownfield redevelopment, and other local and state green planning initiatives. Public forums on cleaning and greening Gowanus have engaged the community, and allowed space for discussing the possibilities for the future of the area. This paper will focus on interview responses in relation to the federal Environmental Protection Agency decision-making process. Why do some residents support or oppose the clean up processes in Gowanus, and what influences their ability or desire to take part in the decision-making processes? Further, for whom is this space being redeveloped, and how do inclusion and exclusion operate to create divisions in decision-making processes surrounding the clean up?     

Impact of storage conditions on the apple allergen Mal?d?1

Consumption of fresh apple fruits can induce allergic reactions in humans. The apple allergen Mal?d?1 is responsible for these allergic reactions in humans in Central Europe and North America. Biosynthesis of Mal?d?1 depends on apple cultivar, and its concentration increases with time during fruit storage. However, data on the impact of different fruit storage conditions during long-term storage are scarce. Hence, the Mal?d?1 contents of eight apple cultivars were analyzed for this study during long-term storage in a cold chamber as well as under controlled atmosphere conditions (CA). After harvest, apple fruits were stored for 12, 20, 28 or 36 weeks in a cold-chamber at +?2?°C or as under controlled atmosphere conditions of 1.5?% CO₂, 1.5?% O₂ at +?2?°C. Mal?d?1 content in apple fruit of all eight cultivars examined increased during fruit storage. In most cases, differences between Mal?d?1 of apple fruits stored in the cold chamber and under CA conditions were significant, but inconsistent. In apple cv. ??Elise??, fruits stored in the cold chamber contained more Mal?d?1 compared with those stored in CA, whereas the situation reversed in other varieties like cv. ??Boskoop??. The greatest Mal?d?1 content was measured in fruits of cvs. ??Golden Delicious?? and ??Gala??, whereas the smallest Mal?d?1 level was in cvs. ??Elise?? and ??Pinova?? over the whole storage time. Overall, this experiment showed the complexity of the relationship between the Mal?d?1 content, allergenicity of apple fruits, different cultivars, storage conditions and storage time. Persons allergic to apple fruits should consume the fruits as fresh as possible or only after a limited storage time. Furthermore, they should prefer apple varieties with a low content of allergenic proteins, such as cv. ??Elise?? or cv. ??Boskoop?? as a cultivar known for its large polyphenol content.     

Is bird incidence in Atlantic forest fragments influenced by landscape patterns at multiple scales?

The degree to which habitat fragmentation affects bird incidence is species specific and may depend on varying spatial scales. Selecting the correct scale of measurement is essential to appropriately assess the effects of habitat fragmentation on bird occurrence. Our objective was to determine which spatial scale of landscape measurement best describes the incidence of three bird species (Pyriglena leucoptera, Xiphorhynchus fuscus and Chiroxiphia caudata) in the fragmented Brazilian Atlantic forest and test if multi-scalar models perform better than single-scalar ones. Bird incidence was assessed in 80 forest fragments. The surrounding landscape structure was described with four indices measured at four spatial scales (400-, 600-, 800- and 1,000-m buffers around the sample points). The explanatory power of each scale in predicting bird incidence was assessed using logistic regression, bootstrapped with 1,000 repetitions. The best results varied between species (1,000-m radius for P. leucoptera; 800-m for X. fuscus and 600-m for C. caudata), probably due to their distinct feeding habits and foraging strategies. Multi-scale models always resulted in better predictions than single-scale models, suggesting that different aspects of the landscape structure are related to different ecological processes influencing bird incidence. In particular, our results suggest that local extinction and (re)colonisation processes might simultaneously act at different scales. Thus, single-scale models may not be good enough to properly describe complex pattern–process relationships. Selecting variables at multiple ecologically relevant scales is a reasonable procedure to optimise the accuracy of species incidence models.     

How many principles of urban ecology are there?

Context

The nature of urban ecology theory is controversial. Issues include whether urban theory is distinct, whether it has principles, and whether those principles differ from those for non-urban systems. Recently, Richard Forman enumerated urban ecology principles, while we have previously articulated different urban ecology principles. This raises the question of whether there are legitimately different sets of principles.

Objectives

Recognizing the legitimacy of Forman’s principles, we wish to determine whether different methodological assumptions can lead to different sets of urban ecology principles.

Methods

We contrast Forman’s 90 urban ecology principles with our much smaller set to determine why they differ in detail, empirical motivation, and generality. We identify the approaches that generate each set of principles, and seek an inclusive framework to integrate them.

Results

The alternative sets represent contrasting approaches to identifying principles: Forman’s approach is more inductive, generating principles from a body of empirical cases, while our concise roster is more deductive, focusing on general ideas from which the details of specific cases can be derived. Both are legitimate.

Conclusions

Principles of urban ecology can arise from inductive empirical generalization within specified ecological, cultural, and historical contexts, as shown by Forman. However, urban ecology principles can also emerge from a more general, synthetic impulse as we have shown. Neither approach is necessarily better. Both can contribute to a comprehensive theoretical hierarchy that can advance urban ecology.