Critical care monitoring.

Small mammals and birds present unique challenges for the clinician in treatment of life-threatening conditions. Numerous books have been written on shock, critical care, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation in small animals. The basic protocols can be adapted for use in small mammals and birds. A general review of the pathophysiology of shock is important to the understanding of fluid therapy plans discussed in this article. Using the general principles of cardiopulmonary-cerebral resuscitation in small animals, protocols are discussed for use in birds and small mammals.     

Bone marrow hypoplasia and intestinal crypt cell necrosis associated with fenbendazole administration in five painted storks

Five painted storks were treated with fenbendazole for 5 days for internal parasitism. Four birds died following treatment. Profound heteropenia was a consistent finding in all samples evaluated; additionally, the 1 surviving bird had progressive anemia. Consistent necropsy findings in the 4 birds that died were small intestinal crypt cell necrosis and severe bone marrow depletion and necrosis. Fenbendazole has been associated with bone marrow hypoplasia and enteric damage in mammals and other species of birds. The dosages of fenbendazole used in birds are often substantially higher than those recommended for mammals, which may contribute to bone marrow hypoplasia and intestinal crypt cell necrosis associated with fenbendazole administration in birds.     

山东省济宁市野生动物救护现状及分析

济宁市野生动物救护中心在2017—2019年日常救护的86只野生动物,分属16目26科40种,本地动物种类占92.5%。在野生动物救护种类和数量上以鸟类最多(79.1%),其次为兽类、两栖类、爬行类;救助成活率爬行类(100%)和鸟类成(86.7%)较高,两栖类(75%)及兽类成活率(76%)较低。本文对野生动物救护的种类、数量、伤病原因、级别进行了分析,讨论了鸟类救护方法,提出了野生动物救护合理化建议,对野生动物救护和生物多样性保护意义重大。     

Avian anesthesia.

Providing a safe anesthetic environment is the key to successful avian anesthesia. Knowledge and understanding the anatomic and physiologic differences between birds and mammals help to prevent most emergency situations and guide responses in critical situations. Thorough preanesthetic history and examination, correction of underlying conditions, and use of simple anesthetic protocols all optimize the outcome of the procedure. Finally, critical monitoring helps to anticipate most crises and reduces incidences of mortality and morbidity in avian anesthesia.     

Anesthesia and analgesia for small mammals and birds.

This article should help the veterinarian to assess pain in small mammals and birds. The focus is on a multimodal approach to anesthesia and analgesia using opioids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, alpha(2)-agonists, dissociatives, and local anesthetics as injectables, constant rate infusions, local blocks, and epidurals. Drugs used for induction, intubation techniques, and inhalant anesthesia are discussed. Protocols for critical patients and doses of common analgesics are covered.     

The use of vasopressin for treating vasodilatory shock and cardiopulmonary arrest

Objective – To discuss 3 potential mechanisms for loss of peripheral vasomotor tone during vasodilatory shock; review vasopressin physiology; review the available animal experimental and human clinical studies of vasopressin in vasodilatory shock and cardiopulmonary arrest; and make recommendations based on review of the data for the use of vasopressin in vasodilatory shock and cardiopulmonary arrest. Data Sources – Human clinical studies, veterinary experimental studies, forum proceedings, book chapters, and American Heart Association guidelines. Human and Veterinary Data Synthesis – Septic shock is the most common form of vasodilatory shock. The exogenous administration of vasopressin in animal models of fluid‐resuscitated septic and hemorrhagic shock significantly increases mean arterial pressure and improves survival. The effect of vasopressin on return to spontaneous circulation, initial cardiac rhythm, and survival compared with epinephrine is mixed. Improved survival in human patients with ventricular fibrillation, pulseless ventricular tachycardia, and nonspecific cardiopulmonary arrest has been observed in 4 small studies of vasopressin versus epinephrine. Three large studies, though, did not find a significant difference between vasopressin and epinephrine in patients with cardiopulmonary arrest regardless of initial cardiac rhythm. No veterinary clinical trials have been performed using vasopressin in cardiopulmonary arrest. Conclusion – Vasopressin (0.01–0.04 U/min, IV) should be considered in small animal veterinary patients with vasodilatory shock that is unresponsive to fluid resuscitation and catecholamine (dobutamine, dopamine, and norepinephrine) administration. Vasopressin (0.2–0.8 U/kg, IV once) administration during cardiopulmonary resuscitation in small animal veterinary patients with pulseless electrical activity or ventricular asystole may be beneficial for myocardial and cerebral blood flow.     

Optimal endpoints of resuscitation and early goal-directed therapy

Objective: To review the available endpoints of shock resuscitation, including traditional perfusion parameters, oxygen‐transport variables, lactate, base deficit (BD), venous oxygen saturation, and gastric mucosal pH, and to discuss the currently accepted methods of assessing successful reversal of oxygen (O₂) debt in shock patients. Human‐based studies: Early goal‐directed therapy has unequivocally been shown to positively affect outcome in human patients experiencing cardiovascular shock. However, specific endpoints of resuscitation to target in critically ill patients remain controversial. Reliance on traditional endpoints of resuscitation (heart rate [HR], blood pressure [BP]) appears insufficient in detection of ongoing tissue hypoxia in shock states. A multitude of publications exist suggesting that indirect indices of global (lactate, base deficit, mixed/central venous oxygen saturation), regional (gastric intramucosal pH [pH_i]) and cellular (transcutaneous oxygen) oxygenation are more successful in outcome prediction and in assessing adequacy of resuscitative efforts in this patient population. Veterinary‐based studies: While there are several large studies evaluating endpoints of resuscitation in experimental canine shock models, this author was unable to find similar research pertaining to small animal veterinary patients. The few articles in which blood lactate is evaluated for prognostic purposes in canine patients are included in this review. Data sources: Veterinary and human literature review. Conclusions: Optimization of early resuscitative efforts has proven to have a survival benefit in human shock patients, and major strides have been made in determining which endpoints of resuscitation to target in this patient population. Similar clinical trials designed to evaluate indices of ongoing global and regional tissue hypoxia in small animal veterinary shock patients are warranted.     

Neuroendocrine mechanism of seasonal reproduction in birds and mammals

In temperate zones, animals use changes in day length as a calendar to time their breeding season. However, the photoreceptive and neuroendocrine mechanisms of seasonal reproduction are considered to differ markedly between birds and mammals. This can be understood from the fact that the eye is the only photoreceptive organ, and melatonin mediates the photoperiodic information in mammals, whereas in birds, photoperiodic information is directly received by the deep brain photoreceptors and melatonin is not involved in seasonal reproduction. Recent molecular and functional genomics analysis uncovered the gene cascade regulating seasonal reproduction in birds and mammals. Long day‐induced thyroid stimulating hormone in the pars tuberalis of the pituitary gland regulates thyroid hormone catabolism within the mediobasal hypothalamus. Further, this local thyroid hormone catabolism appears to regulate seasonal gonadotropin‐releasing hormone secretion. These findings suggest that although the light input pathway is different between birds and mammals (i.e. light or melatonin), the core mechanisms are conserved in these vertebrates.     

Pharmacokinetic aspects of penicillins, aminoglycosides and chloramphenicol in birds compared to mammals. A review

Based on a review of the literature, a comparison is made of the pharmacokinetics of penicillins, aminoglycosides, and chloramphenicol in birds and mammals. Penicillins in birds are likely to be more dependent for their elimination on biotransformation than in mammals. Amoxycillin had a relatively low availability (0.34) after p.o. administration. Higher doses (2 to 8 times) were needed to achieve the same peak levels in birds and mammals. Aminoglycosides, which for their elimination largely depend on renal excretion by glomerular filtration, show only minor differences in pharmacokinetics between birds and mammals. Chloramphenicol is mainly excreted after biotransformation and large differences in pharmacokinetic parameters are to be found, not only between birds and mammals, but also between avian species.     

Emergency and critical care of pet birds.

Critically ill birds must be assessed accurately and provided with immediate supportive care. This article reviews the assessment and diagnostics required for evaluating the critical avian patient. The most common emergencies seen in pet birds are discussed. Diagnostics and treatments protocols are provided to help direct the practitioner toward a complete recovery.     

Adrenal steroid metabolism in birds: anatomy, physiology, and clinical considerations.

The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal system in birds is anatomically and functionally different from that in mammals. The adrenal gland structure and corticosteroid hormone physiology of birds will be reviewed. The anatomy and physiology sections of this article will be important for better understanding the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and possible treatment of primary or secondary adrenal gland disease. Causes of hyper- and hypoadrenocorticism in birds also will be reviewed. The article will conclude with current indications and complications to the clinical use of glucocorticoids in birds.     

A focus on the European hamster to illustrate how to monitor endangered species

Agriculture intensification, marked by the generalization of crop monoculture, by the increase in plot size and by the reduction of plant diversity, has led to huge decline in wildlife in European farmlands. In such habitat, research has long been biased towards birds and invertebrates, while very few studies have investigated the effect on small mammals. Considering the European hamster, Cricetus cricetus, we therefore review the different techniques that can be used to investigate the impact of environmental changes and conservation measures in small and endangered wild mammals. We suggest that only a multidisciplinary approach will allow exploration of these effects, combining experimental laboratory work on captive‐bred animals with the monitoring of wild individuals. In particular, individual energy balance has to be investigated and measured as accurately as possible, through either biochemical or bio‐logging techniques. It is, indeed, the most affected physiological trait in a changing environment, as it determines both the reproductive output and the survival of the individual. We also discuss the inconvenience of capture–release approaches for such an endangered species and emphasize the disturbance that experimental protocols could impose on the hamster.     

Social and spatial foraging patterns of the jackass penguin Spheniscus demersns

The inshore distribution and foraging behaviour of jackass penguins Spheniscus demersus were studied between December 1982 and August 1983 in waters close to breeding islands in Saldanha Bay, South Africa. The use of a sail-boat permitted close observation of foraging penguins with minimal apparent disturbance. Penguin numbers at sea were lowest in December, when most birds were confined to islands during moult, and highest during the winter breeding season. Although most penguin group sizes were small (one or two birds), over 44% of penguins occurred in groups of more than 10 birds. Three typical penguin group formations occurred at sea: ‘facing-search’, ‘line-abreast’, and ‘pointed-ovoid’. Penguins also foraged in association with other seabirds and marine mammals. The importance of large foraging groups suggests that the jackass penguin relies on shoals of similar sizes to those taken by the commercial purse-seine fishery, increasing the potential for "o competition.     

Formulation and (bio)availability problems of drug formulations in birds.

Most drugs used for the treatment of birds are not formulated for birds. Therefore the availability of drugs for birds and their administration routes largely depend on formulations available for man, mammals and to some extent poultry. The problems with the application of existing formulations, the drug concentrations and the many different avian species are discussed. The desire of the avian veterinarian for the combination of several active compounds presents special problems. This again requires extra data on the interactions in galenic, pharmaceutic, pharmacokinetic and dynamic phases, which are generally not readily available.     

Anesthesia and analgesia of ornamental birds

Pet birds are frequently viewed as difficult patients for anaesthesia. The present paper revises the current anaesthetic procedures for injectable and inhalant anaesthetics. Currently the method of choice for the anaesthesia of pet birds is the isoflurane inhalation anaesthesia. Special emphasis is given to the preanaesthetic preparations. Fasting is shorter for pet birds than for mammals. Anaesthetized birds are at special risk for hypothermia. Methods for the prevention of heat loss are given. The use of analgesics are recommended both for welfare reasons but also because of the possibility to reduce the concentration of inhalation anaesthetics and therefore the amount of possible exposure of personnel to waste gases.     

四翅滨藜的生物-生态学特性及研究进展

系统介绍了四翅滨藜Airiplex canescens的生物-生态学特性、更新过程、牧草价值,及其对土壤、植被的影响,回顾了四翅滨藜作为饲料对牲畜、鸟类和小哺乳类动物的作用以及在增加牧草产量、促进植被向恢复演替方向发展和丰富植物群落多样性方面的作用.     

Assessment of animal welfare aspects in extreme breeds of pet animals

In a review based on literature searches animal welfare related characteristics in extreme breed types of small mammals, ornamental birds, reptiles and ornamental fish are summarized. Animal welfare aspects are assessed and measures for improvement are described.     

安溪县陆生野生动物资源状况及区系研究

1998、1999年福建省安溪县林业局开展了鸟类、兽类、两栖爬行类资源调查,基本摸清了安溪县范围内陆生野生动物资源状况。通过区系研究,表明安溪县的鸟类、兽类、两栖爬行动物在动物地理分布上的特征以东洋界的组成成分为主,在动物的二级区系组成上鸟兽类以华南区成分为主,两栖爬行类以华中、华南区成分为主。动物区系中华中、华南区成分的混杂现象也较明显,表现出在动物地理分布上的过渡性、渗透性。     

Pharmacokinetic aspects of penicillins,aminoglycosides and chloramphenicol in birds compared to mammals. A review

Summary

Based on a review of the literature, a comparison is made of the pharmacokinetics of penicillins, aminoglycosides, and chloramphenicol in birds and mammals.

Penicillins in birds are likely to be more dependent for their elimination on biotransformation than in mammals. Amoxycillin had a relatively low availability (0.34) after p.o. administration. Higher doses (2 to 8 times) were needed to achieve the same peak levels in birds and mammals.

Aminoglycosides, which for their elimination largely depend on renal excretion by glomerular filtration, show only minor differences in pharmacokinetics between birds and mammals.

Chloramphenicol is mainly excreted after biotransformation and large differences in pharmacokinetic parameters are to be found, not only between birds and mammals, but also between avian species.     

Housing situation of small animals in Swiss pet shops

This study investigates the situation regarding housing of small animals in Swiss pet shops. Data of 92 pet shops were collected with a questionnaire. On average 813 fish, 52.5 invertebrates, 32.2 small mammals, 26.9 birds, 8.9 reptiles and 2.7 amphibians were offered for sale per pet shop. Small mammals, birds and reptiles were mainly obtained from Swiss breeders, while fish and amphibians were almost exclusively purchased from foreign providers. The housing systems which were sold differed from those in which the animals were kept in the shop. This may be misleading to the future pet owners and may lead to faulty husbandry. Animals on reserve were often kept in different housing systems than those in the pet shop. Sick animals were usually treated or killed by the pet shop owners. The killing methods varied between the various species.