NORMAL XERORADIOGRAPHIC AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE MALLARD DUCK (ANAS PLATYRHYNCHOS) WITH REFERENCE TO OTHER ANSERINE SPECIES

The purpose of this study was to provide a reference for xeroradiographic and conventional radiographic anatomy of the mallard duck ( Anas platyrhynchos ) as a representative of the avian Order Anseriformes. The head, body, wing, and pelvic limb of three adult birds were radiographed using xeroradiographic and conventional radiographic techniques. Nine xeroradiographs and their corresponding conventional radiographs were selected, and the xeroradiographs labeled to illustrate normal anatomy. Selected views of other anseriform species were included to illustrate certain anatomical features unique to those species.     

THE NORMAL XERORADIOGRAPHIC AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE ORANGE-WINGED AMAZON PARROT (AMAZONA AMAZONICA AMAZONICA)

The purpose of the study was to provide a reference for xeroradiographic and conventional radio-graphic anatomy of the orange-winged Amazon parrot ( Amazona amazonica amazonica ) as a representative of medium-sized psittacine birds that are commonly kept as pets. The head, body, wing, and pelvic limb of a mature bird were radiographed using xeroradiographic and conventional radiographic techniques. Ten xeroradiographs and ten corresponding radiographs were selected, and the xeroradiographs labeled to illustrate the normal radiographic anatomy of these regions. Also included is a short discussion of unique avian anatomic features which are important to clinical evaluation.     

NORMAL XERORADIOGRAPHIC AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE GREAT HORNED OWL (BUBO VIRGINIANUS), WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BARN OWL (TYTO ALBA)

The purpose of this study was to provide a reference for xeroradiographic and conventional radiographic anatomy of the great horned owl ( Bubo virginianus ) as a representative of the avian Order Strigiformes. The head, body, wing, and pelvic limb of three adult birds were radiographed using xeroradiographic and conventional radiographic techniques. Twelve xeroradiographs and their corresponding conventional radiographs were selected, and the xeroradiographs labeled to illustrate normal anatomy. Selected views of the barn owl ( Tyto alba ) were included to illustrate significant differences between this and other species of owls.     

NORMAL XERORADIOGRAPHIC AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE RED-TAILED HAWK (BUTEO JAMAICENCIS), WITH REFERENCE TO OTHER DIURNAL RAPTORS

The purpose of this study was to provide a reference for xeroradiographic and conventional radio-graphic anatomy of the red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicencis) as a representative of the avian Order Falconiformes. The head, body, wing, and pelvic limb of three adult birds were radiographed using xeroradiographic and conventional radiographic techniques. Twelve xeroradiographs and their corresponding conventional radiographs were selected, and the xeroradiographs labeled to illustrate the normal anatomy of these regions.     

XERORADIOGRAPHIC AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE CHANNEL CATFISH, ICTALURUS PUNCTATUS

The purpose of this study was to provide an anatomic reference for the channel catfish ( Ictalurus punctatus ) using xeroradiography * and conventional radiography. The entire body of three adult fish was radiographed using standard xeroradiographic and conventional radiographic techniques. Two xeroradiographs and their corresponding conventional radiographs were selected, and the xeroradiographs labeled to illustrate the normal skeletal and soft-tissue anatomy of the channel catfish.     

NORMAL XERORADIOGRAPHIC AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE BOBWHITE QUAIL (Colinus virginianus), WITH REFERENCE TO OTHER GALLIFORM SPECIES

The purpose of this study was to provide a reference for xeroradiographic and conventional radiographic anatomy of the bobwhite quail ( Colinus virginianus ) as a representative of the avian order Galliformes. The heads, bodies, wings, and pelvic limbs of four adult birds were radiographed using xeroradiographic and conventional radiographic techniques. Nine xeroradiographs and their corresponding conventional radiographs were selected, and the xeroradiographs labeled to illustrate the normal anatomy of these regions. A xeroradiograph of the transometatarsus of the domestic peacock ( Pavo cristatus ) was also included to demonstrate the metatarsal spur, which is not present in the quail.     

XERORADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE EQUINE DIGIT AND METACARPOPHALANGEAL REGION

The purpose of the project was to use xeroradiography to provide a reference for radiographic anatomy of the equine digit and metacarpophalangeal region. The left foredigits and metacarpophalangeal joints of a mature horse and a 30-day-old foal were radiographed, using xeroradiographic techniques. Fifteen xeroradiographs, illustrating standard projections of each area, were selected and appropriately labeled to demonstrate normal radiographic anatomy of these regions. These xeroradiographs have been used successfully for several years to teach radiographic anatomy of these areas to first-year veterinary students at North Carolina State University.     

A XERORADIOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE DEVELOPING QUARTERHORSE FOREDIGIT AND METACARPOPHALANGEAL REGION FROM SIX TO TWELVE MONTHS OF AGE

The purpose of the project was to provide a reference for radiographic anatomy of the developing equine foredigit and metacarpophalangeal region. Using xeroradiographic techniques, both foredigits and metacarpophalangeal regions of six Quarter Horse foals were radiographed at 1 day of age and then at 2-week intervals until the foals were 6 weeks old. The foals were then radiographed at 4-week intervals until they were 12 months old. The period from birth to 6 months has been described in a previous report. This paper deals with the period from 6 to 12 months of age. Lateromedial and dorsopalmar xeroradiographs of each foredigit and metacarpophalangeal region and a dorsal 65° proximal-palmarodistal oblique view of the distal part of the digit were made at each examination. Foals were weighed and were measured at the withers immediately prior to each examination. Representative xeroradiographs were selected and appropriately labeled to demonstrate normal radiographic anatomy of these regions. Earliest radiographic visualization of distal epiphyseal ossification in metacarpal 2 and metacarpal 4 was extremely variable and ranged from 4 to 38 weeks. It was not possible to determine accurately the ages at which distal physes of the small metacarpal bones closed. In one foal, three of four of these physes were closed at 26 weeks, while in another foal, none had closed when last radiographed at 54 weeks. Radiographic closure of the proximal physis of the middle phalanx ranged from 18 to 30 weeks (mean = 26 weeks). Radiographic closure of the proximal physis of the proximal phalanx ranged from 22 to 38 weeks (mean = 30 weeks). Radiographic closure of the distal physis of metacarpal 3 ranged from 18 to 38 weeks (mean = 29 weeks).     

A XERORADIOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE DEVELOPING EQUINE FOREDIGIT AND METACARPOPHALANGEAL REGION FROM BIRTH TO SIX MONTHS OF AGE

The purpose of the project was to provide a reference for radiographic anatomy of the developing equine foredigit and metacarpophalangeal region. Using xeroradiographic techniques, both foredigits and meta-carpophalangeal regions of six Quarter Horse foals were radiographed at one day of age and at two-week intervals until the foals were six weeks old. The foals were then radiographed at four-week intervals until they were 12 months old. This report deals specifically with the first six months of postnatal development. Lateromedial and dorsopalmar xeroradiographs of each foredigit and metacarpophalangeal region and a dorsal 65° proximal-palmarodistal oblique view of the distal part of the digit were made for each examination. The foals were weighed and measured at the withers immediately prior to each examination. Representative xeroradiographs were selected and appropriately labeled to demonstrate normal radio-graphic anatomy of these regions. First radiographic appearance of distal epiphyseal ossification in metacarpal 2 and metacarpal 4 was extremely variable and ranged from four to 38 weeks. Radiographic closure of the proximal physis of the middle phalanx ranged from 18 to 30 weeks (mean = 26 weeks). Radiographic closure of the proximal physis of the proximal phalanx ranged from 22 to 38 weeks (mean = 30 weeks). Radiographic closure of the distal physis of metacarpal 3 ranged from 18 to 38 weeks (mean = 29 weeks). When xeroradiographic physeal closure times were compared with scintigraphic closure times from a companion study, results correlated very well. A crena marginis solearis was observed in ten of 12 forelimbs (83.3%); its first radiographic appearance ranged from four to 22 weeks (mean = 11–12 weeks). A consistent groove in the hoof wall, which formed near the time of birth and moved distally at about 3 mm per week, was noted. The groove's distance from the proximal hoof border may be useful in age estimation of foals less than 18–20 weeks old.     

RADIOGRAPHIC PROTOCOL AND NORMAL ANATOMY OF THE HIND FEET IN THE WHITE RHINOCEROS (CERATOTHERIUM SIMUM)

Foot pathology is a common and important health concern in captive rhinoceroses worldwide, but osteopathologies are rarely diagnosed, partly because of a lack of radiographic protocols. Here, we aimed to develop the first radiographic protocol for rhinoceros feet and describe the radiographic anatomy of the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) hind foot (pes). Computed tomographic images were obtained of nine cadaver pedes from seven different white rhinoceroses and assessed for pathology. A single foot deemed free of pathology was radiographed using a range of different projections and exposures to determine the best protocol. 3D models were produced from the CT images and were displayed with the real radiographs to describe the normal radiographic anatomy of the white rhinoceros pes. An optimal radiographic projection was determined for each bone in the rhinoceros pes focusing on highlighting areas where pathology has been previously described. The projections deemed to be most useful were D60Pr‐PlDiO (digit III), D45Pr45M‐PlDiLO (digit II), and D40Pr35L‐PlDiLO (digit IV). The primary beam was centered 5–7 cm proximal to the cuticle on the digit of interest. Articular surfaces, ridges, grooves, tubercles, processes and fossae were identified. The radiographic protocol we have developed along with the normal radiographic anatomy we have described will allow for more accessible and effective diagnosis of white rhinoceros foot osteopathologies.     

A XERORADIOGRAPHIC STUDY OF OSTEOCHONDROSIS IN THE METACARPOPHALANGEAL REGION OF TWO FOALS

Using xeroradiographic techniques, both metacarpophalangeal regions of six quarter horse foals were radiographed at 1 day of age and at 2-week intervals until they were 6 weeks old, and then at 4-week intervals until they were 12 months old. Lateromedial and dorsopalmar xeroradiographs of each metacarpophalangeal region were made per examination; dorsomedial-palmarolateral projections of the left metacarpophalangeal joint of foal 6 were also made. The foals were weighed and measured at the withers immediately prior to each examination. Representative xeroradiographs were selected to demonstrate progression of the osteochondrosis (OCH) lesions in two of these foals. Radiographic evidence of osteochondrosis in the metacarpophalangeal region was first detected at 10 weeks and followed through 12 months of age. In one foal the lesions were bilaterally symmetric and involved the dorsoproximal aspect of the sagittal ridge of metacarpal 3; in the other, the left medial proximal sesamoid bone was affected. One of the sagittal ridge lesions progressed to osteochondritis dissecans by 26 weeks; the other sagittal ridge lesion and that of the sesamoid bone healed spontaneously, but residual radiographic evidence of the disease persisted throughout the study in both foals.     

IMAGING OF THE CANINE AND FELINE TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT: A REVIEW

The radiographic anatomy of the temporomandibular joint in the dog and cat is described in dorsoventral and oblique projections. The positioning for different oblique views in conventional radiography and technical details of computed tomography are reviewed. Typical radiographic features of craniomandibular osteopathy, dysplasia, luxation, subluxation, fractures, ankylosis, degenerative joint disease, infection, and neoplasia involving the temporomandibular joint are discussed.     

RADIOGRAPHY OF THE EQUINE THORAX: ANATOMY AND TECHNIC

Radiographic evaluation of the entire adult equine thorax in the standing position requires a minimum of four overlapping lateral radiographs. Small horses could often be studied with fewer radiographs. This basic examination provided the optimal radiographic opportunity for detecting lung diseases in the horse. An understanding of normal gross and radiographic anatomy is an absolute necessity if one is to avoid the potential diagnostic pitfalls inherent in radiographic interpretation of the equine thorax. Of equal importance is an appreciation for the technic required to produce thoracic radiographs. The advent of rare-earth intensifying screen and highspeed film systems has enhanced the opportunity for obtaining diagnostic standing lateral equine thoracic radiographs.     

Comparison of two grafting methods in 4.0-mm drill defects in the third metacarpal bone of horses.

In 6 horses, bilateral metacarpal vertical series of three 4.0-mm unicortical drill holes were made. At random, one of each series of 3 holes was filled using a sternal 4.0-mm cancellous bone cylinder or a slurry of cancellous bone injected into the hole or left as an empty control. All horses had lateral metacarpal xeroradiographs at monthly intervals. Three horses (6 metacarpi) were examined post mortem after 4 months and 3 others after 6 months. Immediate through 4-month post-operative xeroradiographs demonstrated increased density in the holes with cancellous cylinders and no difference could be seen between the untreated controls and holes injected with slurry. From 5 months, no radiographic difference could be seen between the treatment groups. No consistent histological difference between treatment groups could be detected. In conclusion, no justification for clinical grafting of 4.0-mm unicortical dorsal metacarpal drill holes could be found.     

RADIOGRAPHIC VISUALIZATION OF THE RUMINANT UPPER URINARY TRACT BY A DOUBLE CONTRAST TECHNIQUE

The ruminant urinary tract is normally obscured by abdominal viscera, which hampers rediographic investigation by conventional urographic methods. A double contrast technique that uses pneumoperitoneum in conjunction with excretory urography is described. Bolus and infusion urographic techniques were used in sheep and calves. Only the infusion technique was used in cows. The radiographic anatomy of the upper urinary tract in these animals is described. Visualization of the nephrogram and collecting system varied, depending on the method of excretory urography used.     

TOMY OF THE CANINE BRAIN USING HIGH RESOLUTION OMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY*

High resolution computed tomography (CT) was used to determine the normal appearance of the brain of an adult Beagle dog. Objects as small as 0.6 mm for bony structures (high contrast) and 1.5–2.0 mm for soft tissue structures (low contrast) could be resolved in the CT images. Multiplanar imaging using direct transverse and reformatted dorsal and sagittal images made it possible to obtain a three dimensional presentation of anatomy. Selective viewing, where CT number window and level settings were varied, was used to optimize visualization of specific brain structures. Normal high contrast components, cerebrospinal fluid, and osseous land-marks, were important aids in identification of various intracranial structures. Quantitative densitometry was performed to characterize various regions of the brain in terms of their x-ray attenuation values or CT numbers. This study indicated that high resolution CT provides a qualitative and quantitative appraisal of the canine brain that is unavailable using conventional radiographic technics.     

RADIOGRAPHIC GASTROINTESTINAL ANATOMY OF THE FOAL*

The purposes of this study were to evaluate a technique for contrast gastrointestinal (GI) radiography and to define the normal radiographic anatomy of the foal GI tract as demonstrated by survey and contrast radiography. GI studies were performed in five normal foals. Right lateral standing, right and left lateral recumbent, and ventrodorsal (dorsal recumbent) radiographs were evaluated. The recumbent lateral and ventrodorsal positions were preferred, although the right lateral standing position demonstrated most structures. Radiographic positions that clearly identified a specific GI region were determined. The dosage of contrast medium used (5 ml/kg of a 30% wt/vol barium suspension) was adequate to outline the GI tract. Transit times allowed evaluation of the large colon within eight hours.     

Radiographic anatomy of the thoraco-abdominal cavity of the ostrich (Struthio camelus)

This study provides a reference for the radiographic anatomy of the thoraco-abdominal cavity of female ostriches as a representative of ratites. One ostrich cadaver, 2 adult and 2 growing ostriches were used. Right lateral radiographs produced by a 6-frame technique and 2 dorsoventral radiographs produced by an adapted 3-frame technique were selected and schematic illustrations of these were labelled to illustrate normal radiographic anatomy. Differences from other avian species and unique features of the ostrich are briefly discussed.     

Radiographic examination of the equine foot

A complete radiographic examination of the equine foot consists of properly exposed, processed, and positioned radiographs. For radiographic interpretation, in addition to knowing radiographic signs of disease, a knowledge of normal radiographic anatomy and possible insignificant anatomic variations is necessary.