Property rights for social inclusion: Migrant strategies for securing land and livelihoods in Papua New Guinea

This paper examines the broad range of informal land transactions and arrangements migrants are entering into with customary landowners to gain access to customary land for export cash cropping in the oil palm belt of West New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Whilst these arrangements can provide migrants with relatively secure access to land, there are instances of migrants losing their land rights. Typically, the land tenure arrangements of migrants with more secure access to land are within a framework of property rights for social inclusion whereby customary landowners’ inalienable rights to land are preserved and the ‘outsider’ becomes an ‘insider’ with ongoing use rights to the land. Through socially embedding land transactions in place‐based practices of non‐market exchange, identities of difference are eroded as migrants assume identities as part of their host groups. This adaptability of customary land tenure and its capacity to accommodate large migration in‐flows and expanding commodity production undermines the argument common amongst proponents of land reform that customary tenure is static and inflexible. Before such claims are heeded, there must be more detailed empirical investigations of the diverse range of land tenure regimes operating in areas of the country experiencing high rates of immigration.     

Divided communities and contested landscapes: Mobility,development and shifting identities in migrant destination sites in Papua New Guinea

Abstract: Internal conflicts at the local and national levels in several South Pacific countries have revealed the fragility of national unity and the difficulties nations face in governing and managing their own economic development. In Papua New Guinea, the focus of this paper, an uncertain economic future for many rural and urban communities, and rising inequalities in income opportunities and access to resources, have coincided with greater intolerance of migrants at sites of high in‐migration by customary landowners and provincial and local authorities. This paper draws on fieldwork undertaken in the major oil palm growing regions of Papua New Guinea where migrants from densely populated regions of the country have settled on state land alienated from customary landowners. We examine how struggles over land, resource control and development are polarising migrant and landowner identities resulting in increasing tensions and episodic communal violence. A settler identity is emerging based on a narrative of nation building and national development, while an ethno‐regional identity amongst customary landowners is undermining the citizen rights of migrants and challenging the role and authority of the state in land matters.     

Property Rights and Public Interests: A Wyoming Agricultural Lands Study

Rocky Mountain states have experienced unprecedented growth as agricultural land is converted to residences. Preservation efforts meet with protest from private landholders claiming public efforts undermine private property rights. This paper explores the degree to which respondents think management of agricultural lands is a public versus a private matter. Data are from a Sublette County, Wyoming, mail survey. Results are relevant to many western counties having public lands and high growth rates. They suggest that landowners, wage earners, college graduates, and those who value the county’s rural community lifestyle support public management strategies. Well‐established residents and those with economic reasons for living in the county support private management strategies.     

基于“三权分置”的农地承包权评估方法探讨

在城乡中国的背景下,“三权分置”的新时期中国农地制度创新理论为土地产权改革提供了机遇,农地承包权价值内涵构成及价格评估是值得深入研究的课题,这不仅给农用地流转提供依据,也是自然资源资产价值核算的关键。本研究从“三权分置”的政策背景演变入手,重释了承包权内涵及价值构成,并在分析影响价值因素的前提下探讨了采用收益还原法与叠加法来评估承包权基准地价。研究认为,（1）承包权是因农户具备了集体经济组织成员身份,从而享有对农村集体土地承包的权利;身份权特征明显,具有主体专一、财产收益、效益处分及有效占有等4个特点;（2）集体成员身份权具有身份性、平等性、共同性及约束性等4个特性,享受成员权的主体形式可以是农户家庭也可以是集体经济组织的个人或是两者的结合;（3）依据农地承包权的生产收益权价值和社会保障价值构成,采用收益还原法和叠加法两种方法来评估承包权价格,在确定社会保障价值时可以借用征地区片综合地价中的社保费用值来量化。本研究在维护农户土地权益前提下,以期为全面有序开展农地质量价格评估和价值核算提供有益参考。     

浅析农村土地流转中农民权益的保护

本文探讨了保护农村土地流转中农民权益的必要性,详细论述了目前我国农村土地流转中农民权益缺失情况,包括经济方面的缺失和社会权利方面的缺失,从农民社会地位低和相关的政策法规不明晰两方面分析造成这种现象的原因,提出了提高农民素质和法律意识、明确产权主体、建立利益补偿机制、建立多层次的社会保障体系等措施,稳妥地推进土地流转,保护农民权益。     

Information Linkages in Local Economic Development

Profitable private investments may be bypassed in struggling regions due precisely to such regions' isolation, leading to a self‐reinforcing cycle of marginalization. In many cases, development in such regions may be most effectively promoted by providing key information to the private and public sectors, thus addressing potentially significant market failures. In the case study project, the calculation of private and social returns have been particularly crucial in sparking both private investor interest and public support of this business venture. The project's example suggests an updated role for universities in the assistance of productive economic development programs.     

经营性建设用地征地补偿方式探究——土地权益入股

研究目的：通过分析经营性建设用地征地补偿实行土地权益入股的可行性和实行此种方式应具备的条件,为完善中国征地制度,保护失地农民利益提供一种思路。研究方法主要是文献资料法和理性分析法。研究结论：从理论常识、法律依据、企业需求、农民需求、政府等方面分析对经营性建设用地征地补偿方式实行土地权益入股是可行性的,并提出了实行此种方式应具备的基础条件、前提条件、技术条件和法律保证。     

论农村土地价值体系

随着现代农业发展、新农村建设和城乡统筹发展的推进,农村土地借助土地流转与整治平台被不断盘活,而土地流转与整治过程诱发的农村土地价值转移和转化,促使农村土地价值体系构建成为目前土地利用决策和耕地保护迫切需要解决的现实问题。本文采用文献资料法,从耕地价值和宅基地价值两个层面,论述了农村土地价值构成体系与估算方法。研究表明：（1）耕地价值体系框架已成型,包括经济价值、社会价值、生态价值、发展权价值、国家粮食战略安全价值等物质价值和选择价值、存在价值、馈赠价值等精神价值。但由于对土地价值认知的不足,通常重经济价值、轻社会价值、生态价值和国家粮食战略安全价值,而忽略发展权价值与精神价值;（2）宅基地价值体系尚不清晰,从产权价值和资源价值来看,其亦可分为承载价值、社会价值、生态价值和发展权价值;（3）从估算方法来看,收益还原法、成本替代法、影子工程法、条件价值评估法在耕地价值估算中应用较为成熟,但宅基地价值估算主要停留在理论层面的定性探讨。为此,农村土地价值体系重构中,应充分考虑农村宅基地使用权在产权和土地利用形式上的特殊性,进一步挖掘集体建设用地的价值内涵,而农村土地价值测算中应显化土地发展权价值,并借鉴农用地、城镇建设用地分等、定级、估价等研究成果,创新宅基地价值估算方法。     

Urban Growth Boundaries and Betterment: Rent‐Seeking by Landowners on Melbourne's Expanding Urban Fringe

Melbourne's Urban Growth Boundary (UGB) was legislated in 2002 and expanded substantially in 2010. Although based on strategic planning goals, UGBs have the capacity to influence land and housing markets. Landowners on the rural–urban fringe are a stakeholder group directly impacted by UGB policy, with multiple interests in containment policies and any land‐value effects. Following the 2010 expansion, substantial windfall profits to “instant millionaire” Melbourne landowners were openly reported. This paper critically interprets claims made by landowners in 264 public submissions responding to the proposed UGB expansion, and to an accompanying new policy instrument, the Growth Areas Infrastructure Contribution (GAIC). The GAIC was, in effect, a hypothecated tax on betterment expected to result from the UGB shift. Landowners commonly expressed fears that the UGB shift would not result in claimed value increases. On this basis, the GAIC was revised such that it is—at least in intention—a system wherein the tax is to be paid by housing developers and passed forward to homebuyers. The paper argues that the series of changes to the UGB and GAIC, including the modified “purchaser pays” system, may be understood as a response to rent‐seeking policy pressures from existing landowners as “insiders.” Although the unpopularity of the GAIC with landowners might have been anticipated, the outcome appears to legitimise their misinterpretation of the premise of development gain. A broader implication is that rent‐seeking behaviour by existing property owners can determine whether and how strategic planning policies are implemented.     

Implementation analysis of transfer of development rights for conserving privately owned built heritage in Hong Kong: A transactions costs perspective

Transfer of development rights (TDR) programs are introduced as an alternative institutional innovation to the traditional regulatory instruments for land development. They meet the demand for development and conservation while balancing the conflicts between public and private interests with minimal use of public funds. Most TDR literature is about nature conservation and there is little focus on the complicated process and diverse stakeholders’ interests of urban land use in dealing with built heritage conservation. Previous studies show that the success of TDR programs depends on various elements, especially policy design and implementation approaches. The design and implementation of TDR programs involves transaction costs that can reduce the efficiency and effectiveness of these programs. This paper aims at developing a framework for analyzing TDR programs. This proposed framework not only takes transactions costs into account, but also provides a basis for decision makers to decipher the process of informal TDR. Using Hong Kong as a case study, three TDR implementation modes are selected to examine how different informal institutional arrangements have resulted in specific transaction costs in practice and hindered TDR projects. Our findings, which are informed by transactions costs economics, provide practical insights in order to improving the efficiency and effectiveness of TDR programs, particularly in informal contexts.     

Can transfer of development rights programs save farmland in metropolitan counties?

Transfer development rights (TDR) programs have been gaining popularity as a tool for farmland preservation, as they compensate landowners at minimal public cost. This study shows that despite their wide adoption, TDR programs do not save much farmland on the urban fringe. We use Department of Agriculture data and apply two quasi‐experimental methods, synthetic control, and difference‐in‐difference, to evaluate the effect of TDR programs on farm retention for three fringe metropolitan counties in the state of Maryland. We also compare land use patterns before and after TDR implementation in these counties. The result shows limited effects of TDR programs on farm preservation, even in Montgomery County, one of the national models for TDR programs. TDR programs do contribute to low and medium density residential development. This cautions observation planners about their enthusiasm toward TDR programs and highlights the difficulty of preserving farmland on the fringe of metropolitan regions. We compare the features of the studied TDR programs, and highlight those that account for the programs’ relative success/failure. Based on these analyses, we make recommendations to planners to help improve TDR effectiveness.     

建国以来中国农民土地权益演变研究

对建国以来中国农地制度中农民土地权益进行较为全面分析。首先对计划经济时期农民土地权益进行分析,包括建国初期、初级合作社时期以及高级合作社时期的农地制度与农民土地权益。接着对改革开放以后农民土地权益进行分析,包括改革开放初期农民获得承包权、家庭承包责任制全面实行阶段农民拥有稳定的承包权,以及家庭承包责任制完善阶段农民拥有了用益物权性质的承包权。应该说,改革开放后,中国正致力于通过农地制度调整来加强对农民土地权益的维护。     

Urban squatters and the poor in Fiji: Issues of land and investment in coastal areas

Pacific land issues are not only about Indigenous ownership in rural areas. Within urban areas in particular, land historically alienated into State control produced consequences only now being realised. In Fiji, all State land is claimed by communal landowners and such claims were said to be one reason for the 2006 coup. It has been suggested in recent times that urban informal settlements on the qoliqoli (coastal and foreshore land) are at risk and face increasing challenges from landowners. This paper examines a neglected area of urban State land in Fiji and comments on the future of the urban poor in Fiji if land tenure is unresolved.     

关于城市化进程中被征地农民的权益保障问题

研究目的：在中国城市化进程中，失地农民愈来愈多，在当前的制度安排下，失地农民面临着严重的生存与发展问题，提出了维护失地农民权益的思路与政策建议。研究方法：归纳分析法和文献资料法。研究结果：分析了当前失地农民权益受损的主要原因，指出了对待失地农民利益应遵循平等与公平、按市场经济规律办事以及共同富裕的原则，提出从严格界定“公共利益”；明晰集体土地产权，合理确定各土地产权的补偿标准；实施多元化的征地补偿方式，将失地农民纳入社会保障体系等保障失地农民权益的思路。研究结论：解决失地农民的生存与发展问题，让失地农民分享城市化与经济发展的成果，这才是真正的和谐社会，才是真正的城市化。     

The challenge of sustainable tourism development in the Maldives: Understanding the social and political dimensions of sustainability

Issues of power and politics are central to the development of the tourism sector and its prospects for contributing to sustainable development. This is demonstrated through a case study of the evolution of tourism in the Maldives, a luxury tourism destination where the government has followed a consistent policy of ‘quality tourism’ that has often been cited as a prime example of sustainable tourism. However, recently concerns have been raised about environmental degradation, human rights abuses, connections between the political and economic elite, and huge economic disparities associated with tourism here. Research on sustainable tourism needs to recognise the state's pivotal role in directing tourism development and consider how states balance the competing interests of other powerful tourism stakeholders.     

中国农村集体建设用地产权制度改革公共性问题探析

为深入剖析和总结中国集体建设用地产权制度改革试点中出现的问题和治理经验,探索系统推进中国农村集体产权制度改革的路径。本研究运用数据、规范和比较分析方法,对中国农村集体建设用地产权制度改革的公共性缺失问题进行了反思和探讨。从公共性生产逻辑的视角,提出在协调现行市场经济条件下“城乡融合发展的公共利益、集体经济的共同利益和农民的财产权益”基础上,建构以多元主体协同共治为基础,以数字化治理技术创新为保障,以公共基础设施和公共服务改善为支撑,以城乡要素市场双向流动建设为目标的产权制度改革路径。为此,本研究建议进一步明确农村集体建设用地产权制度改革的公共性目标,从城乡融合发展的视角系统地推进各项配套改革措施的完善,并加强对其改革效果的公共性评估。     

How States Augment the Capabilities of Technology–Pioneering Firms

State governments offer a variety of programs to assist technology intensive entrepreneurial firms yet there is a limited understanding of how firms use these programs. This paper provides a framework for categorizing state technology programs and uses detailed case studies to examine how these programs augment firms’ capabilities. It is concluded that firms made extensive use of state programs that provide access to university intellectual property and research facilities. In addition, firms participated in programs that provided incentives for faculty to conduct joint research with industry. Finally, state venture capital programs, though small relative to federal R&D grants or venture capital, appear to nurture firms’ development.     

新生代农民工的社会保障权益问题研究——基于苏州328名新生代农民工的调查

新生代农民工对中国的经济转型发展起着重要作用,其社会保障权益直接影响到新生代农民工的生存与发展问题。对江苏省苏州市328名新生代农民工的社会保障权益现状进行实地调查,发现其社会保障权益现状与诉求仍有较大差距。社会保障制度的不完善性、地区间社会保障模式差异性,加之企业逃避责任现象和新生代农民工的主观因素,均对新生代农民工的社会保障权益问题产生重要影响。笔者结合产业升级的社会化大背景与新生代农民工自身特点,从国家、政府、企业、新生代农民工四方面,提出完善社会保障制度、提高统筹层次、加强企业责任监督、提高新生代农民工自身素质的对策建议。     

Private Government Formation in the DC Metropolitan Area

ABSTRACT This paper examines a variety of quasi-governmental organizations, mandatory homeowners' associations, special service districts, and transportation management associations, recently established in the urban region. Using the Washington, DC metropolitan area as a case study, this paper explores reasons for their development and implications of them for urban governance. It is argued that these organizations marry the concepts of public special districts and public-private partnerships in a process of private government formation. Private governments, it is suggested, are not wholly a private response to the shedding of services by the public sector, the dominant notion of privatization and local state restructuring, but the result of demands emerging in the private sector stimulated by social and spatial change. This signals the need to add to the concept of public-driven privatization the process of private initiated change where the resulting goods and services are more fully shaped by the needs of private interests. The evidence suggests these institutions do not represent a scaling back of the local state as privatization implies, but an extension of state structures in a fundamentally new direction, an extension which could be labeled the parallel state.     

农地发展权及其增值收益分配研究——以甘肃武威工业园区为例

以农地发展权为切入点,通过对农地发展权及其增值收益进行界定、细分及量化,并以甘肃武威工业园区为例进行实证研究,结果表明：（1）国家享有占主体地位的基本发展权,并获得相应的价值和50%的实体发展权价值及其增值收益为1.6亿元,这部分资金由国家用于工业园区外适宜开垦的地区开垦耕地和补偿生态用地;（2）农村集体及被征地农民享有实体发展权,并获得50%的实体发展权价值及增值收益和相应的征地补偿共计3.79亿元,平均每人可获得14.59万元的保障收益,用于保护失地农民的权益和保障其基本生活;（3）承担绿地养护的农业人口将享有虚拟发展权及其补偿价格为0.96亿元,平均每人可获得7.37万元的补偿收益。研究发现农地发展权及其增值收益的细分及量化分配既可以保护农民的权益,保障农民的生活;又有利于国家有效地解决农地非农化中存在的外部性补偿问题,保护耕地、保障国家粮食安全;还可以协调地区发展的不平衡问题。