Lipid energy reserves influence life-history decision of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (S. trutta) in fresh water

Abstract –  Lipid density appears to influence life-history decisions in salmonid fishes. This study shows that parr and smolts of anadromous Atlantic salmon from a south Norwegian river have on average between 30 and 40% higher energy level than corresponding brown trout in spring and summer, which may explain differences in life-history traits between the two species. The higher energy density of young salmon was chiefly due to a 1.8 times higher lipid density in parr and 2.4 times higher lipid density in smolts. The difference was smaller among immature parr in the autumn, with only 1.4 times higher lipid density in salmon than trout. The reason for the decreased difference was probably that the more energy rich salmon parr had attained maturity at the time. Among mature male parr, the somatic energy density was approximately 10% higher in trout than salmon. However, the gonadal energy content was more than twice as high in salmon than in trout. The higher somatic energy allocation in parr of Atlantic salmon probably influences protein growth of the two species in fresh water, and increases the ability of salmon relative to trout to undertake long distance feeding migrations and make large investments in reproduction.     

A genetic tool for evaluating male‐mediated stock introgression in Atlantic salmon

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Seawater adaptability in three different river stocks of Baltic salmon (Salmo salar L.) during smolting

Two-summer-old Baltic salmon (Salmo salar) from three different stocks in northern Sweden held at Heden, Norrfors and Bergeforsen hatcheries were subjected to five successive seawater challenge tests each from 2 May until 5 July 1983. A pronounced seasonal pattern of plasma sodium levels was observed in sexually immature fish at Norrfors but not at the other two hatcheries. Response surface analysis of sodium data from the Norrfors fish predicted minimum plasma sodium concentration (i.e., maximum seawater adaptation) for transfer of 14.8-cm fish to sea water on 4 June. Precocious male parr at Norrfors had significantly higher plasma sodium concentrations after seawater challenge than did sexually immature fish in all tests. At the time of the fifth seawater challenge test in early July, a number of males at Bergeforsen and Norrfors were becoming sexually mature again and they suffered heavy mortality in sea water. The inhibitory effect of low temperature on testis regression in precocious male parr and its effect on their ability to smoltify is described. It is suggested that the seasonal variation in ambient water temperature near the time of the smolt-run might affect the proportion of precocious males which migrate from northern rivers. We view the seasonal pattern of seawater adaptability in juvenile Baltic salmon as an indicator of the endogenous annual timing system involved in the control of smolting and conclude that it can assist in deciding when to release Baltic salmon smolts from hatcheries.     

Correlation between condition factor and total lipid content in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., parr

Abstract. A strong and significant positive correlation was observed between condition factor and total lipid content in immature Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., parr (0+) sampled at the same time. Condition factor can thus be used as a convenient non-lethal indicator of energy reserve status among immature salmonids.     

Epidemiology of Gyrodactylus salaris (Monogenea) in the River Tornionjoki, a Baltic wild salmon river

The occurrence of Gyrodactylus salaris in the River Tornionjoki was investigated in 2000-2004. Infection of salmon parr, Salmo salar, was common in the uppermost reach of the river system but decreased downstream and was rare in the lowermost reach. This pattern was consistent across the study period regardless of varying water temperatures. The oldest age groups of parr were more often infected than younger ones throughout the river system, irrespective of their origin (wild or stocked). Parasite-free hatchery-reared 1-year-old parr became infected during their first summer in the wild. Downmigrating salmon smolts had a high prevalence of infection, but their role in the distribution of infection seemed unimportant. On grayling, Thymallus thymallus, we observed only the grayling-specific clade of Gyrodactylus. We found no indication of grayling participating in the epidemiology of infection on salmon. The salmon parr and smolt population in the Tornionjoki has been at its height during the late 1990s and 2000s. Our results indicate that G. salaris infection in this Baltic river has no devastating effects on the salmon population as it has had in salmon rivers flowing into the North Atlantic and White Sea.     

The immune response of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., to the causative agent of bacterial kidney disease, Renibacterium salmoninarum

Abstract. Both under-yearling and post-yearling Atlantic salmon parr produced high agglutinating antibody titres in response to a single intraperitoneal injection of killed bacterial kidney disease (BKD) cells emulsified in. Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA), Low or no response was observed in animals injected with BKD cells in saline or in animals vaccinated by hyperosmotic immersion. Immunological duration was insufficient in fish vaccinated as under-yearling parr to provide protective immunity 2 years later when the fish had become smolts. Atlantic salmon post-yearling parr injected with BKD cells in FCA demonstrated a reduced prevalence of BKD lesions compared to control animals when both were observed as smolts 1 year after vaccination.     

High marine survival rates of sea‐ranched Atlantic salmon smolts (Salmo salar) that had previously matured as male parr

Abstract The growth and recapture rates of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., smolts that had previously matured as parr were compared with those of immature siblings in a sea‐ranching experiment in western Norway. The smolts were the offspring of three river populations. They were individually tagged, transferred to cages in a small bay where estuarine salinity gradients had been established and released on four dates from mid‐May to early June after either 3 or 7 days of acclimatisation. The previously mature male parr (PMMP) were smaller than their siblings before release, but performed much better during their time in the sea. As grilse, they reached sizes comparable with the formerly immature fish, and their recapture rate was more than four times higher (8.6 vs 2.1%). This difference decreased somewhat during the following years because 0.85% of the immature fish and only 0.1% of PMMP were recaptured as multi‐sea‐winter salmon. The highly successful marine performance of the PMMP demonstrated that this life history strategy may be more flexible than previously believed.     

Introduction and establishment of Gyrodactylus salaris Malmberg, 1957, on Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., fry and parr in the River Vefsna, northern Norway

Abstract. Gyrodactylus salaris was probably introduced into the River Vefsna, a large salmon river in northern Norway, by stocking of Atlantic salmon smolts from infected hatcheries in 1975 and 1977. An outbreak of G. salaris among salmon parr was observed in 1978. During the following 2 years, the parasite spread throughout the entire watercourse. There was a rapid rise in prevalence rate and degree of infection. The density of salmon parr decreased from a high level before the Gyrodacrylus outbreak to close to zero after the outbreak. Salmon parr mortality is probably associated with an increase in the parasite burden. Infected fish appear to survive for slightly more than 1 year and this time period is sufficient for transmission of the parasite to the next year class. The total catch of salmon ascending the river has also greatly decreased in recent years.     

Changes in alkaline phosphatase isoenzyme activity in tissues and plasma of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) before and during smoltification and gonadal maturation

Changes in tissue and plasma isoenzymes of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were qualitatively and quantitatively determined for male and female Atlantic salmon parr, silvery parr, smolt, immature grilse, prespawning grilse and postspawning grilse using cellulose acetate electrophoresis, densitometry and spectrophotometry. Tissue ALP isoenzymes were isolated from intestine, kidney, bone, liver, and gonad and compared to plasma isoenzymes. Parr plasma displayed three isoenzymes from bone and liver (slow and fast). During smoltification, ALP activity increased in tissue extracts from liver, gonad, and kidney of males and females. Total plasma ALP activity also increased and was due to slow and fast liver isoenzymes. During ovarian development, total ALP plasma activity increased in females and was due mostly to liver isoenzymes and an incompletely identified isoenzyme or isoenzyme mixture (band 2). However, in males total ALP plasma activity did not increase during maturation and no band 2 was evident. In male and female maturing adult grilse, bone ALP activity declined and the isoenzyme band evident in parr plasma could not be detected. ALP activity declined in the plasma of postspawning males and females. In females this was due partly to the total clearance of band 2 from the plasma, together with lowered levels of liver isoenzymes. Treatment of postspawned grilse in February and March with triiodothyronine and thyroxine elevated plasma thyroid hormone levels and increased plasma ALP levels. In conclusion, plasma ALP isoenzyme activities change with physiological state, and knowledge of the conditions governing these changes is important when using these enzymes as a diagnostic tool.     

Response to individual selection for age at sexual maturity in Atlantic salmon

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) that mature sexually at 1 year of age (as parr or precocious males), at 4 years of age (after two winters in the sea) and at 5 years of age (after three winters in the sea) were used to study response to individual selection for age at sexual maturity. Six mating groups were made: between fish of the same age (4 × 4 and 5 × 5); reciprocal matings between 4- and 5-year-old fish (4 × 5 and 5 × 4); and matings between 1-year-old precocious males and 4- and 5-year-old females (1 × 4 and 1 × 5). Parental age at sexual maturity was found to influence markedly the offspring age at sexual maturity. The heritability for age at maturity in the sea was estimated at 0.48 ± 0.20 from the offspring—dam regression. It is concluded that there is considerable opportunity to alter the age at sexual maturity in Atlantic salmon through selection. Evidence was found that maturation of parr is a heritable trait and that it is independently inherited from maturation in the sea.     

Studies with an experimental model for pancreas disease of Atlantic salmon Salmo Salar L.

This paper describes reproducing pancreas disease in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., parr with intraperitoneal inoculation of homogenized kidney and spleen taken From affected fish. Pancreatic necrosis and cardiomyopathy changes were induced consistently in all experimental groups. A time-course study demonstrated that pancreatic changes occurred as early as 4 days post inoculation and a repair process was evident in some fish on day 7 post inoculation. Heart lesions were first observed on day 5 post inoculation and increased in prevalence and severity as the experiment continued. Both types of lesion were serially passaged. and passively transmitted to fish cohabited with inoculated parr. The incidence of these changes was unaffected by passage of the infective homogenate through a 0.2 μ filter. The homogenate was inactivated after treatment with chloroform. Passive immunization with serum from recovered farmed salmon protected parr against challenge. It is suggested that pancreas disease is caused by a virus with a lipid envelope.     

Reproductive strategies in small populations: using Atlantic salmon as a case study

Abstract –  Wild salmonid populations with only a few breeding adults may not exhibit a significant reduction in genetic variability compared with larger populations. Such an observation suggests that effective population sizes are larger than population size estimates based on direct adult counts and/or the mating strategy maximises outbreeding, contributing to increased heterozygosity. In the case of wild Atlantic salmon Salmo salar populations, stratification by age classes and sexes on the spawning grounds avoids inbreeding and increases genetic variability. We studied the breeding composition of four Spanish salmon populations. Over a 7-year period we concluded that the probability of within-cohort mating is very low: females generally reproduce after two sea-winters whereas males reproduce mostly as one sea-winter ( grilse ) and/or mature parr. Considering different levels of contribution of mature parr to spawning derived from field surveys, we developed a simple model for estimating effective population sizes and found that they doubled with 65% parr contribution expected for rivers at this latitude (43°N), and ranged from 100–800 individuals. The effect of between-cohort mating was modelled considering different ranges of differences in allele frequencies between cohorts and resulted in 28–50% increases in heterozygosity when considering a 65% parr contribution. The complex mating strategy of Atlantic salmon contributes to explain the high levels of genetic variability found for small populations of this species. This model can probably be extended to other animal species with mating strategies involving different cohorts.     

A comparative study of juvenile salmon density in 20 streams throughout a very large river system in northern Norway

Abstract – The objective was to compare juvenile salmon density in 20 streams throughout the very large River Tana, northern Norway, and to relate variation in density to a suite of environmental factors. Four sampling sites were electrofished in each stream (one at the mouth of the stream and three within the stream) in August and October 2000, 2001, 2002. 0+ salmon parr were absent from seven streams, present at the mouth of 11 streams, and present within only two streams, both of which were probably spawning streams. Older parr migrated upstream into most streams and their highest densities were usually found in streams flowing directly into the spawning habitat in the three largest tributaries of the Tana or the river itself. Juvenile salmon were sparse or absent in streams flowing into smaller tributaries. Most streams with high parr densities were those of dense riparian vegetation that provided terrestrial invertebrates as drift food for the salmon parr, cover for fish, cooler stream temperatures in summer, and food for benthic stream invertebrates that were also a source of food for the parr.     

Within-stock variations of life-history traits in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

Variations in space (geographical location) and time (year) of phenotypic traits linked to life-history (size, growth, condition and sexual maturation) were analysed within the population of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) 1 + parr of Little Codroy River (southwest Newfoundland). The hydrographic system was divided into 10 zones: 4 for the mainstem and 6 for the tributaries. Despite the small size of the river studied, a highly significant spatial heterogeneity was observed. Within the mainstem, size, growth and rate of maturation of males tended to decrease when progressing upstream. When compared with the tributaries as a whole, the mainstem had smaller salmon juveniles, both at the end of the first winter (mainstem: 67.6 mm; tributaries: 73.3 mm) and at 1 + age (mainstem: 80.6 mm; tributaries: 88.3 mm), and the proportion of maturing fish among 1 + males was lower (mainstem: 48.6%; tributaries: 74.2%). According to the feature considered, from 20% to 70% of the spatial effect was due only to differences between the mainstem and the tributaries as a whole. A strong year effect was also revealed. Life-history traits seemed to fluctuate over time independently from one tributary to another, whereas patterns in their yearly variations were basically consistent among zones in the mainstem. The potential role of genetic and environmental factors in explaining changes in space and time of biological characteristics of parr is discussed. Within a small system such as Little Codroy River, spatio-temporal life-history variations of Atlantic salmon juveniles were most likely driven by environment.     

Leptin in fish: possible role in sexual maturation in male Atlantic salmon

Leptin plays an important role in energy homeostasis and reproductive function in mammals, while its function in fish is still poorly understood, especially its role in reproduction. In the present study, leptin gene expression and circulating leptin plasma levels were measured during sexual maturation in male Atlantic salmon parr. In maturing male salmon, higher hepatic leptin (lepa1) gene expression levels were observed during mid-spermatogenesis compared to immature fish. An upregulation of leptin during sexual maturation has also been observed in a few other teleost species. The physiological significance of elevated leptin levels during the maturational process in teleosts remains to be explored.     

Resource partitioning between lake-dwelling Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) parr, brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) and Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus (L.))

Abstract – Resource partitioning between Atlantic salmon parr, brown trout and Arctic charr was studied throughout the ice-free season in a north Norwegian lake. Juvenile salmon and trout (≤160 mm) utilized the littoral zone and juvenile charr the profundal, while adult trout and charr (>160 mm) were found in both. Juvenile salmon and trout had a similar diet, although trichopteran larvae were more important for the trout and chironomid pupae and three-spined sticklebacks for the salmon parr. Small salmon and trout parr (≤120 mm) had a higher diet overlap than larger parr (121–160 mm). The feeding habits of adult trout were similar to that of juvenile trout, but the former took larger prey items. At the population level, both salmon and trout were generalistic feeders with a broad diet, but at the individual level, both species had specialized on a single or a few prey categories. Juvenile charr were segregated from salmon and trout in both habitat and food utilization; they had a narrow diet consisting of chironomids and zooplankton, possibly reflecting their confinement to the profundal habitat which have a low diversity of potential prey. Larger charr also took zoobenthos and sticklebacks in the littoral zone. ^Note     

The suitability of anadromous Arctic charr as host and vector of the monogenean Gyrodactylus salaris

Abstract –  In 2000, the Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar L.) stock in the river Signaldalselva, North Norway was found to be infected with the monogenean Gyrodactylus salaris (Malmberg). This river system has a multispecies fish community of nine species in total. Low densities of Atlantic salmon parr were found during electrofishing in October (2003) with a prevalence of 94% and a mean abundance of 848 G. salaris. This watercourse also holds a riverine stock of anadromous Arctic charr ( Salvelinus alpinus ), which is not common in Norway. Among the parr of Arctic charr, 64% were infested with an abundance of 23 parasites per fish. The most heavily infected 0+ and 1+ juvenile Arctic charr had 469 and 534 parasites, respectively, indicating that the parasites are able to reproduce on Arctic charr in the wild. There was little variation in the rates of infestation of Arctic charr along the studied stretch of the river, even in areas with very low densities of Atlantic salmon parr. The parr of anadromous Arctic charr seem to be suitable as long-term hosts for G. salaris . Moreover, a few (22%) infested adult sea-running Arctic charr were captured after ascending the river in the autumn, which shows that large fish may also act as carriers of G. salaris . However, no parasites were recorded on potential anadromous Arctic charr before descending during early spring (April 2003 and April 2004). Thus, it is still not clear whether anadromous Arctic charr are able to disperse the parasite between watercourses. So far, it is uncertain whether G. salaris may increase the mortality rates of Arctic charr and thereby be a threat to these unusual occurring riverine anadromous Arctic charr stocks.     

Comparative feeding, growth and movements of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) parr from riverine and estuarine environments

Abstract– The diet composition, movcments and growth of Atlantic salmon parr rearing in the estuary of Western Arm Brook, Newfoundland were compared with those of parr from riverine habitats over 2 years. Estuarine parr consumed a variety of prey, including many freshwater taxa (mainly insects), which indicated a dependence on freshwater drift from the river. Prey of estuarine origin (amphipods and sticklebacks) were increasingly consumed between spring and autumn. Prey volume per fish and number of prey per fish increased significantly for estuarine parr between spring and autumn, suggesting an improvement in food availability. Riverine parr, however, realized a general decrease in both parameters between spring and autumn. The recapture of 16% ( n = 131) of the 829 parr marked in the estuary in 1987 and 1988 indicated a directed movement toward the head of the estuary and river mouth, as also suggested by the diet analysis. Parr from outer estuary sites were very mobile compared with parr from the estuary site closest to the river mouth, which behaved more like parr in the river proper in displaying strong site fidelity. Movement patterns of parr were primarily along the shoreline. Individual growth rates were highly variable in both environments but especially in the estuary. The mean growth of estuarine parr was 0.23 mm. d⁻¹ between May and October with some evidence of fastest growth having occurred in late spring and early summer (approx. 0.4 mm. d⁻¹); mean growth rate of riverine parr was slower, at 0.12 mm. d⁻¹. The results are discussed in the context that estuarine rearing by salmon parr represents an alternative life-history tactic for the species in river systems in eastern Canada.     

Lake-use by juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) and other salmonids in northern Norway

Abstract– The utilization of lakes, and inlet and outlet streams by juvenile Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar L.), brown trout ( Salmo trutta L.) and Arctic charr ( Salvelinus alpinus (L.), were investigated in 16 watercourses northern Norway, all known to inhabit salmon stocks. In lakes, fish were caught by small mesh size gill nets, while in rivers fish were caught electrofishing. In the shallow littoral (0-3 m depth) there were juvenile salmon in 15 of 19 investigated lakes, juvenile trout in 17 and juvenile charr in seven. Trout dominated significantly in numbers in the shallow littoral of seven lakes, while salmon and charr dominated in three lakes each. When trout and salmon were frequent in the shallow littoral, charr was usually not present in this habitat, but were found in the profundal zone in most of the lakes. Atlantic salmon parr utilized both shallow and deep lakes, and used both stones and macrophytic vegetation as shelter. The utilization of lakes by salmon parr seemed to be closely related to utilization of small inlet streams for spawning. In most inlet and outlet streams salmon dominated over trout in numbers, while charr were absent. This is the first documentation of lake-use by naturally occurring salmon parr in Scandinavia.     

Resource partitioning between Siberian sculpin (Cottus poecilopus Heckel) and Atlantic salmon parr (Salmo salar L.) in a sub-Arctic river, northern Norway

Abstract– Food resource partitioning between Siberian sculpin ( Cottus poecilopus ) and Atlantic salmon parr ( Salmo salar ) was investigated throughout a summer season in the subarctic River Reisa, northern Norway. The two species had almost identical diets, feeding primarily on benthic invertebrates and selecting the same prey species. There was no strong segregation in the diel feeding rhythms of the two species, although the salmon parr consumed a large proportion of their food at night during August and September. The results suggest that the two species compete for food, and that interspecific competition for limited food resources may explain the low production of Atlantic salmon in this river. The observation of a high degree of dietary overlap between the sculpin and the salmon parr contrasts with expectation of interactive segregation. Further, the findings conflict with general niche and competition theories, being inconsistent with the competitive exclusion principle.