Nontimber forest products and biodiversity management in the Pacific Northwest

Nontimber forest product harvesting in the Pacific Northwest is neither a new activity nor a disappearing relic of the pre-industrial era. Though the emphasis may have shifted from subsistence to commercial and recreational pursuits, harvesting and harvesters of wild species are still widespread throughout the region. Hundreds of businesses and thousands of harvesters earn part or all of their income from the harvests. Every year thousands of pounds and hundreds of nontimber forest products valued in the hundreds of millions of dollars are harvested from regional public and private forests. This harvesting of a large diversity of species represents a considerable subset of the overall terrestrial biodiversity in Pacific Northwest forests. Despite widespread extraction, little investment in research, planning, or basic inventorying and monitoring has been done on nontimber forest products. Without better information, land managers will be increasingly unable to make informed decisions on how to manage nontimber forest product biodiversity sustainably as demand for products increases.     

In Search of Optimum Institutions for Forest Management

There is a variety of forest management institutions ranging from state management to community and private management. This article attempts to identify the conditions under which one institution outperforms the others in the efficiency of forest management based on a review of the literature, empirical evidence on the dominant forest management institutions, and theoretical arguments. In conclusion, we argue that the community management system performs best for nontimber forests, whereas a mixed management system, in which forest protection is carried out communally and tree management is carried out individually, is likely to work best for timber forests.     

Plant species of traditional Mayan homegardens of Mexico as analogs for multistrata agroforests

The shortened fallow period in traditional slash and burn agriculture of the Maya of Quintana Roo, Mexico, has reduced soil fertility, crop yields, biodiversity, and mature forest vegetation. Studies have shown that agroforests that mimic local ecosystem processes can be used to provide for the farmers' well-being while protecting and preserving forest resources and biodiversity. The objective of this investigation was to identify, describe, and evaluate Mayan crop plants that could be used as analog species in agroforest design. We used participant observation, interviews with farmers, and field measurements to collect information on the social, agricultural, and ecological aspects of the plants. We identified five horizontal and one vertical strata in mature homegardens: the herbaceous stratum, the low shrub stratum, the tall shrub stratum, the fruit tree stratum, the timber tree stratum, and the viny stratum. We categorized 77 forbes, shrubs, and vines identified for their temporal and spatial placement in an agroforest. The plants evaluated can be placed in one of the four developmental stages of an agroforest: the herbaceous stage, and the shrub stage, the fruit tree stage, and the timber tree stage. By using the identified plants and the analog hypothesis, we can design an agroecological system that provides for the farmers' needs, and efficiently utilizes the resources on-site for the production of food, timber, medicinal plants, and nontimber products in a manner that protects the natural resource base of the region. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Phenology and pollination of Manilkara zapota in forest and homegardens

Knowledge on reproductive phenology and pollination biology are basic elements that should be considered in the management and exploitation of plant species that offer non-timber products. The tropical tree Manilkara zapota is a species from which non-timber products have been obtained for centuries by Mayan communities in Mexico. Nevertheless, there are no quantitative reports on its reproductive biology and the factors that limit fruit production. The present study describes the reproductive phenology, breeding system and pollination of this species in two contrasting environments: medium-height, subdeciduous forest, and homegardens (“solares”) in a Mayan community in the state of Yucatan. Significant differences were found between environments both in the temporal distribution of flower and mature fruit production, as well as in the proportion of mature fruits. Homegarden trees showed the greatest fruit production, although flower production did not differ between environments. Mature fruits were of better quality (i.e., greater fresh weight) in homegardens. Hand pollination experiments showed that M. zapota is self-compatible, and that there is pollinator limitation for fruit production in trees that grow in homegardens. We propose that water and soil nutrients are the main factors limiting M. zapota fruit production in forests, while in homegardens the main factor appears to be pollinator availability.     

Tree Culture of Smallholder Farmers Practicing Agroforestry in Gunung Salak Valley,West Java,Indonesia

This paper investigates the types of agroforestry system that exist in Gunung Salak Valley, West Java, Indonesia in order to characterize the differences in their basic structure and associated crop plant diversity. Data were collected through rapid rural appraisal, field observation and focus groups, followed by household survey of a sample of 20 agroforestry farmers. Five main agroforestry systems (homegardens, fruit tree system, timber tree system, mixed fruit–timber system, and cropping in the forest understory) exist in the study area, and all of them exhibit a noticeable diversity in terms of both species composition and utilization. Products from farming accounted for an average 24 % of household income. They comprised agroforestry products which contributed IDR 3.25 million/year and other agricultural products contributing IDR 1.66 million/year. The observed agroforestry systems include not only a form of forest dominated by ‘cultivated trees’, but also an anthropogenic vegetation formation derived from agricultural antecedents. In land-use classifications agroforestry systems are not recognized as forestry, but like forests they provide tree products and services. Classification will always be disfunctional if a binary system is applied, thus a more sophisticated approach should be adopted that incorporates the economic and environmental characteristics of a wider range of systems.     

Species Composition, Distribution and Management of Trees in Rice Paddy Fields in Central Lao, PDR

Presence of different types of trees dispersed singly or in small groups throughout the fields is a very common feature in the extensive rice paddies of Laos and Thailand. Factors such as land-settlement history, proximity to forest, and role of species in the local culture are known to influence the nature and distribution of tree species so retained. The extent of influence of these factors on tree-species composition and distribution in rice paddies was investigated in three villages in Central Laos: Dongmakngeo, a newly established village with an abundance of adjacent forest; Bak, an old village with adjacent forest; and Nakhou, an old village without any adjacent forest. At Dongmakngeo village, 23 species, mostly remnants from the original forest, were observed in paddy fields. At Bak village, few trees were found in the paddy fields because villagers had ample access to resources in the surrounding large forest. On the other hand, 119 species, 27 of which were planted, were recorded at the forest-deprived Nakhou village; the scarcity of forest resources at Nakhou was compensated for by the utilization and management of trees located among the fields, resulting in tree species changing from remnant to ruderal over time. Thus, our results demonstrate that the pattern of tree distribution and species composition in paddy landscapes is not uniform, but varies in relation to settlement history, topography, and human management. This has important implications for setting both landscape-level land-use management plans and local tree management policies for achieving sustainable tropical paddy-dominated agro-silvicultural systems.     

湖南省主要经济林树种管理信息系统的研制

湖南省是经济林主产区，产量高、品质优、但由于信息不流通而无法发挥其应有的效益。本研究将湖南省主要经济林树种划分为五大类，每类选取3～5个特色树种作为研究对象，以Powerbuilder7.0为开发工具，以Oracle 8.0作为数据库管理软件，研究开发出基于Client/Server计算机网络体系结构、依托校园网提供INTERNET服务的经济林管理信息系统。     

我国经济林高新技术产业建设的思考

在对国内外经济林生产现状和发展趋势进行概述的基础上,对我国未来经济林生产总体框架提出设想。现全国有经济林经营面积２０００万ｈｍ＾２,近２００个不同树种和多种经营方式,预计至２０００年面积可达２６００－３０００万ｈｍ＾２,年产值超１０００亿元。提出经济林生产应用高新技术的突破口主要以下几个方面：培育新的品种;经济林生态系统的建立和管理;经济林产产品的贮藏保产品的深加工和综合利用。在发展战略上可分近期     

Plant use and management in homegardens and swiddens: evidence from the Bolivian Amazon

Amazonian plant management is perhaps nowhere as intense as in homegardens and swiddens. A quantitative ethnobotanical study was conducted in Indigenous Territory and National Park Isiboro-Sécure, Bolivia, to investigate plant use and management in homegardens and swiddens by local Yuracaré and Trinitario ethnic groups. Ethnobotanical data of plants were obtained from 11 Yuracaré and 11 Trinitario participants through semistructured interviews. A total of 151 different cultivated or tolerated species was recorded, accounting for 21% of all inventoried plants considered useful to local Yuracarés and Trinitarios. The local use value of managed plants is almost twice that of wild plants. Managed plants score particularly higher than wild plants for medicinal, food and material applications. Most managed plants are herbs, followed by trees and shrubs. Nevertheless, managed trees have significantly higher overall use values than all other life forms. Managed trees tend to be particularly more appreciated as sources of food and materials, whereas herbaceous plants generally have a higher therapeutic value. Our results support observations made in literature that moderately humanized landscapes, and homegardens and swiddens in particular, are an important source of food and healing for forest people. Although people generally start managing plants in homegardens and swiddens because of their perceived usefulness, they are also favourable locations to experiment with the usefulness of (managed or wild) plants prevailing there. This particularly accounts for medicinal plants and it is argued that the use of managed plants in traditional medicine relates to (1) the high intensity of contact with theses species, and (2) their chemical defence strategy. To conclude, a number of policy recommendations are presented.     

世界松籽资源生产利用现状及我国松籽发展对策探讨

松籽是一种美味的非木质林产品, 全球有30多个松属物种可以生产可食用松籽, 但目前只有5个物种的松籽被用于商业生产。近年来, 国际松籽市场规模在不断扩大, 产品供不应求, 价格居高不下。我国是松籽生产及进出口大国, 年产量在2万t左右, 出口量占世界松籽贸易量的40%以上, 居首位, 但出口的松籽多数原产于俄罗斯。近几年俄罗斯国内消费量在不断增长, 加之俄罗斯远东及西伯利亚生产松籽的森林被大面积地砍伐破坏, 我国不可能长期依赖进口满足国内消费及出口需求。因此, 建议对我国果用松林的经济与生态重要性进行再评估, 并考虑起动相关研究, 挖掘潜力, 对生产松籽的松林实施园艺式高效经营或作为专门产业来管理。     

Ecological rationalities of the traditional homegarden system in the Chao Phraya Basin, Thailand

Although the homegarden systems in the tropics are claimed to sustain basic community needs without environmental deterioration, the ecological rationalities behind the harmony between the humans, homegardens, and the environment are not well understood. Four study sites (Sukhothai, Srisatchanalai, Ayudhaya, and Nonthaburi) representing the four Thai eras in the Chao Phraya Basin were selected for studying these rationalities. The size and physical stature of the homegardens, their plant association and community features, physical environmental factors, nutrient and soil fertility parameters, and cultivation practices were studied. The major factor that determines species selection in homegardens is the utilization of the products, while the various practices within the homegardens are determined by such factors as the species, the system, and the environment. All homegardens had four vertical stratifications, with physical structures almost similar to that of dry dipterocarp forest, but with lower height for each layer, lower diversity of plants, and sparser crown layer. The analysis also shows a high possible utilization efficiency for space, light, water and nutrients in the soil in the homegardens. Shannon-Wiener's indices of species diversity of the homegardens were close to those of dipterocarp forest. The homegardens are in-situ reservoirs for biodiversity at genetic-, species-, and ecological levels. There was no complete harvesting from these homegardens. This practice ensured minimal nutrient export from the systems, while high amounts and diversity of litter biomass should contribute to high efficiency of nutrient cycling. Futhermore, phosphorus availability could be better in homegardens. The homegardens had more favorable microenvironment with lower soil and atmospheric temperature and higher relative humidity than outside. There has been no single incident of a pest outbreak at a threatening level. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Plant species diversity of homegardens of Cuba and its significance for household food supply

The cultivation of different plants in homegardens for self-sufficiency has a long tradition in Cuba, but knowledge about homegardens in Cuba is small. To analyse this more deeply, cultivated plants of 31 homegardens were surveyed in three villages in eastern Cuba in 2001. Two of the study villages were located in a humid area with an annual precipitation of about 2200 mm. The third village was situated in a semiarid area with about 450 mm precipitation. The plants studied in the homegardens included those for human consumption such as fruits, vegetables, tubers and cereals as well as spices and medicinal plants. In total, 101 different plant species were found with an average number of 18 to 24 species per homegarden for the three villages. A broad range of species was found in all villages, because irrigation is used under semiarid conditions, which lead to a relative high similarity in species composition between the villages. But, also differences due to the climatic situation became evident, particularly with the medicinal plants. In general, homegarden production provided a broad and diverse basis for self-sufficiency of the households. Although homegarden production showed to be only a small source of income, it is particularly important because of low-paid outside work and minimal food provision of the state.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Dynamics of Homegarden Structure and Function in Kerala, India

Homegardens in Kerala have long been important multi-purpose agroforestry systems that combine ecological and socioeconomical sustainability. However, traditional homegardens are subject to different conversion processes linked to socioeconomic changes. These dynamics were studied in a survey of 30 homegardens. On the basis of a cluster analysis of tree/shrub species density and subsequent further grouping using homegarden size as additional characteristic, six homegarden types were differentiated. These were assessed regarding structural, functional, management and dynamics characteristics. Four development stages of homegardens were found along a gradient from traditional to modern homegardens. Fifty percent of the homegardens still displayed traditional features, whereas 33% incorporated modern practices. The process of modernisation includes a decrease of the tree/shrub diversity, a gradual concentration on a limited number of cash-crop species, an increase of ornamental plants, a gradual homogenization of homegarden structure and an increased use of external inputs. One homegarden was characterised as an adapted traditional homegarden combining multispecies composition and intensive management practices using internal inputs with commercial production. In comparison to modern homegardens, this homegarden type offers an example of an alternative development path in adapting homegardens to changing socioeconomic conditions. The study of structural and functional dynamics of homegardens offers the opportunity to understand the trends in socio-economic sustainability and how these relate to ecological sustainability.     

Perceptions,Preferences, and Attitude of Bangladesh Farmers Towards Homegarden Farming Systems

An empirical study was conducted of the attitudes, perceptions and preferences of owners of homegardens in Bangladesh. A wide spectrum of opinions regarding various agroforestry issues was observed. Landholders were found to maintain their homegardens mainly for subsistence, although some additional family income was derived from selling surplus products. Due to lack of scientific knowledge the growing stock of homegardens was not of high quality. Seedlings were mostly preferred to other planting materials. Mango was accorded the highest ‘preference ranking’ among the available species. The farmers expected a number of external support measures, including high quality planting materials, assured credit facilities, and access to state-of-the-art management knowledge. It was concluded that various perceptions, preferences and attitude of the farmers would provide a framework for future policy formulation, preparation of homegarden management plans and development of homegardens in the study area and more generally in Bangladesh.     

Financial viability and conservation role of betel leaf based agroforestry: an indigenous hill farming system of Khasia community in Bangladesh

A study was conducted to investigate the cultural and financial management techniques of betel leaf based agroforestry system practiced in or near homegardens of Khasia community in Jaintapur Upazila in the district of Sylhet, Bangladesh. The Khasia is an educated community where 100% of Khasia people were literate, a stunning fact for this ethnic community in Bangladesh. The average family size in the study area was 7.68, with a ration of male and females of 141:100. The homegardens of the Khasia are rich in species composition, which 15 timber species, 22 horticultural species, six medicinal species, 13 annual crops including leafy vegetables, seven species of spices and five species of bamboo were identified along with betel leaf. The Khasia is an economically prosperous community with the minimum family incomes of Tk 4000 per month (Tk. 70=1 US Dollar). Betel leaf based agroforestry is very common being a prevalent source of income. About 95.45% of the households are involved in betel leaf husbandry. The mean annual income from one hectare of betel leaf plantation was estimated to be Tk. 80979. This practice was proven to be a profitable business where the benefit cost ratio was calculated to be 4.47. Moreover, the species composition in the betel leaf plantation area (the forest area once utilized by Khasia for shifting cultivation) was found to be very promising to play the significant role in conservation of biological diversity making the practice a sustainable agroforestry system.     

龙陵县非木质林产品的采集利用与管理对策研究

龙陵县非木质林产品种类繁多,包括香料类、食用类、药用类、树脂类、野生观赏植物及花卉类.文中分析了龙陵县非木质林产品没有形成规模化生产,生产加工种类少,利用程度低,掠夺式的采集活动导致野生资源遭到毁灭性破坏等非木质产品开发、采集与利用现状.进一步分析了非木质林产品的不合理采集利用对森林可持续利用产生的影响,包括森林植被遭到破坏,导致森林功能退化,生物多样性减少,危及野生动物栖息地等.藉此,提出开展村民生态环境保护意识教育,防止野生资源过度采集,注重非木质林产品深加工,提高产品附加值,加大人工培育和技术投入等非木质林产品采集利用管理对策.     

Interdisciplinary analysis of homegardens in Nicaragua: micro- zonation, plant use and socioeconomic importance

The choice of plant species, their arrangement and management varies between and within tropical homegardens in the same community. Relationships between agroecological and socioeconomic characteristics of 20 homegardens were examined at Masaya, Nicaragua. Variables analyzed were micro-zonation (area allocation to specific uses and management), plant use and diversity, occupation, labor investment, and product, benefit and income generation. Data was collected through surveys, participatory mapping, plant inventories, direct observation and interviews. Ten different micro-zones and nine plant uses were identified. Fruit trees, shaded coffee and ornamentals were the most important zones. Plant diversity was high, with a sample total of 324 species. Homegardens were an important occupation, with average labor investments of 32.6 h family^–1 week^–1. Families obtained at least 40 different plant products from homegardens, as well as the benefit of space for working and socializing. Six homegarden types were identified using a cluster analysis based on biophysical variables. Types reflected the relationship between income generation and the number and types of zones and plant species present. Labor inputs were high considering the small size of the homegardens (average size 3,240 m²), although no clear relationships between labor investment and plant and zone type or number were observed. Homegarden management strategies of plant selection and zonation were affected both by family choices and external forces. Although dependence on homegardens may vary according to specific conditions at a given time, they seem to be a consistent, flexible resource used to meet a diversity of needs. The methodological approach used in this paper may be appropriate for the study of other traditional agroecosystems since it includes both biophysical and socioeconomic variables, essential for understanding these complex systems.     

Forests,people and environment: some African perspectives§

Forests in Africa support the livelihoods of millions of people through provision of timber and non-timber forest products, food and nutrition, energy and payment of environmental services. However, mismanagement of forests has resulted in deforestation and forest degradation, thereby contributing to the increased emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This special issue highlights some of the research outcomes presented at a pre-congress workshop organised by the African Forest Forum and partners at the 2015 World Forestry Congress. In this issue, the main drivers of land degradation are highlighted vis-à-vis population growth, agricultural expansion, climate variability, drought and energy needs. Promising traditional management practices are identified including age-old farmer-managed natural regeneration and exclosures. In addition, research presented indicates that age-old systems such as native non-browse shrubs in Ethiopia are important in that they facilitate regeneration of late-successional tree species. Furthermore, opportunities for using forests to mitigate climate change are highlighted with a case study on the economics associated with carbon markets. The issue also highlights the methodological challenges of quantifying carbon in African forests. The effect of climate change on threatened forest species and biodiversity in general is discussed, and the associated human disturbances impacting on the population structure of a threatened species, e.g. Afzelia africana in West Africa, is presented. The important role of non-timber forest products in income generation for the rural communities and the associated challenges of commercialisation is emphasised with examples from two important tree species: shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) and baobab (Adansonia digitata). Finally, the issue covers a people-centred approach in tree planting and management where studies demonstrated that there are still problems of poor participation of local communities due to poor implementation of enabling policies, lack of involvement in initial planning and subsequent lack of clear benefit-sharing mechanisms.     

Cultural knowledge of forests and allied tree system management around Mabira Forest Reserve,Uganda

The cultural universe is sometimes confusing,surprising and murky, so many cultural maps get drawn,discussed and envisioned. A study was undertaken around Mabira Forest Reserve in central Uganda to identify the trees and shrubs culturally managed on-farm, assess the cultural practices of forest and tree system management and determine the relationship between farmer gender and forest and tree system management. We engaged 203 farmers in focus group discussions and semi-structuredinterviews to collect data. Qualitative data were jointly evaluated with farmers; quantitative data were analyzed in SPSS 20.0. The results showed a high likelihood for involvement of local people in tree or forest management for economic gain, as timber and fast-growing species were highly ranked. Food and medicinal species were also regarded as important, suggesting high prospects of integrating them into the local farming system or protecting them in the forest. Numerous cultural practices(including rituals, trenching, bark slashing, ring barking, spot weeding and use of organic manure and pesticides) of forest and tree system management were acknowledged. However, their knowledge was mixed and unclear about distinct cultural and supportive arrangements for natural forest and tree restoration. While gender was not a significant cultural attribute for knowledge of the forest and allied tree system management, age substantially affected farmer propensity for various timber products. Also farmer's family size influenced the collection of tree wildings and fodder. We encourage considering gender disparities and livelihood needs including income, during selection of cultural practices for forest and tree restoration.